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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



JUn 23 1S86 



GREAT LIVES 



COURSE OF HISTORY 



IN 



BIOGEAPHIES. 



y. 



BY 



J. I. MOMBERT, D.D., 

AUTHOR OF "THE ENGLISH VERSIONS OF THE BIBLE, 
"TYNDALE'S PENTATEUCH," ETC., ETC. 



fil 



jFirst Series. 




LEACH, SHEWELL, & SANBORN. 

BOSTON AND NEW YORK. 






THE LIBRAHY 
OF CONGRESS 

WASHINOTOW 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1886, by 

J. I. MOMBEIiT, D.D., 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PRESS OF HENRY H. CLARK <5t CO., BOSTON, 



The history of the world can he found in the history of a dozen 
names. — Archdeacon Farkar. 



PUBLISHERS' NOTICE. 



All truth is said to be one, but its forms of expression may 
be as diverse as the features of the human countenance; they 
may be fair, attractive, almost indelible, or quite the opposite. 

It being impossible as well as undesirable to present all the facts 
of history, that selection is best ivhich gives the clearest and most 
correct outline with the most economy of space, and so that the 
effect of the part narrated may be most nearly the same as if the 
whole were given. 

Such has been the aim in the preparation of these pages, to 
give in truthful and vivid outline the Lives of some of the greatest 
actors in the Wo7M^s History, with the leading events iyi which 
they were engaged. 

May they serve to give a zest to this study, and aid in inspiring 
a love of its pursuit. 



PEBFACE. 



The simple narratives here presented to the public trace in 
brief and compendious form a number of Great Lives from 
the legendary period of Greece to the present time. 

They are the lives, of representative and central characters 
in many of the most important and interesting events in 
History. 

If "the proper study of mankind is man," this method of 
studying History cannot fail to benefit all desirous of imitating 
the virtues of the good, of shunning the vices of the evil, and 
of avoiding errors which have destroyed the happiness, and 
fostered the misery, of millions of our fellow-men. 

This little volume is sent forth as a help to the student, 
a remembrancer to the scholar, and a guide to busy people 
who have neither the leisure to read, nor perhaps the means to 
buy, larger and more exhaustive works. 

Brief References at the end of each Life to good authorities, 
not a few of which indicate the first sources of historical lore, 
will enable the reader to continue with great profit this charm- 
ing and most important study. 

To each of the three Divisions of the subject has been 
subjoined a Chronological Survey which may be useful for 
recapitulation and reference. 

A Vocabulary, which has almost grown into a miniature 
cyclopaedia, supplies much valuable information. 



CONTENTS. 



— • 

I. 

ANCIENT HISTORY. 
A. Greek. 

PAGE 

Hercules 1 

Lycuegus 9 

Solon . . . . 15 

MiLTIADES .21 

Leonidas and Themistocles 27 

Pericles .35 

Alcibiades and Socrates 41 

Alexander the Great 51 

B. Roman. 

KOMULUS 60 

Tarquinius the Proud 64 

DuiLius AND Regulus 70 

Hannibal . 75 

SciPio Afeicanus Junior 83 

Julius C^sar . . . . . . . . . . 88 

CONSTANTINE THE GrEAT 100 

Attila 106 



Viii CONTENTS. 

II. 
MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

PAGE 

Justinian 115 

Mohammed 122 

Boniface 130 

Charlemagne 135 

Alfred the Great . . . 147 

Godfrey of Bouillon 155 

Columbus 160 

III. 
MODERN HISTORY. 

Martin Luther . , 175 

Elizabeth 183 

Peter the Great 192 

Frederic the Great 204 

George Washington . . ^^ 222 

Benjamin Franklin 240 

Napoleon 1 253 

Abraham Lincoln 273 

Ulysses S. Grant 284 



IV. 



Pronouncing and Explanatory Vocabulary 



307 



I. ANCIENT HISTORY. 



GREECE & THE GRI 




Longitude E. 




Fisk & See.N.Y. 



I. 
ANCIENT HISTORY. 



3>®=ic 



HERCULES. 

One of the fabled gods of the Greeks was called Zeus, and 

believed to rule heaven ; he married Alcmene, daugh- r 

1 261 (?) 
ter of the king of Thebes, and had a son, called Her- 
cules, who became very strong and proved his great strength 
even as a young infant by killing two serpents that had slipped 
into his cradle. He was brought up by Amphitryon, who 
taught him to ride in a chariot, and got others to teach him to 
wrestle, to use the bow, to fight with heavy armor, to sing, and 
to play the lyre. He had the misfortune to slay Linus, his 
music teacher, and in punishment was sent by Amphitryon to 
feed his cattle. 

As a youth, Hercules one day came to a place where two 
roads parted, and wondering which to choose, saw before him 
two goddesses, the one exceeding beautiful, the other also fair, 
but less radiant than the first. Came to him the beautiful, 
bade him follow her, and promised delightful reward. " Who 
art thou?" asked the youth; and the goddess, smiling, said, 
•'My friends call me Pleasure, my enemies. Vice." "And 
whither dost thou lead me ? " inquired Hercules of the other, 
who said, " I will lead thee to toil and peril, but promise thee 
immortality, and honor and glory with the gods and with men, 
if thou wilt follow me." 



2 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Her words touched his heart, and thrusting aside the for- 
ward Pleasure, he pledged himself to Virtue, who fulfilled her 
promise, as will appear from the twelve labors he performed. 

In those days the gods of Greece were said to makfe known 
their wishes to men by means of oracles — a word which some- 
times means these directions themselves, and sometimes the 
places where they were uttered. The most famous oracle 
was that of Delphi, which directed Hercules to go to 
Eurystheus, king of Argolis, to learn from him what he was 
to do. 

That king took him into his service, and bade him fetch the 
skin of the Nemean lion, a brute of monster size and strength, 
the terror of all Argolis. That lion, descended from a fabled 
monster, ravaged the land and cruelly destroyed the people ; 
his skin was so shaggy and tough that no arrow could pierce 
it ; and, as in those days gunpowder was unknown, the feat to 
secure his skin was very hard. Some say that Hercules blocked 
up one of the openings of the lion's den, and entering through 
the other, met and strangled the brute ; others, that he met it 
in the open air, attacked it with his fists, and slew it with his 
club. One thing is sure : he killed the monster, delivered the 
land from its cruelty, and rettirned to Eurystheus, carrying 
the skin, like a cloak, on his shoulders. This was the first 
labor of Hercules. 

In the same country of Argolis, in a swamp near Lerna, 
dwelt another monster, like the lion, an oflfepring of Typhon, 
but unlike him in all other respects. It was terrible to look 
upon, for it was a kind of serpent with nine, some say with a 
hundred, heads, which, though cut off, would forthwith grow 
again ; it was more terrible to draw near its hiding-place, for 
it would suddenly burst upon man or beast, tear and devour 
them. That monster was called Hydra, and it was the task of 
Hercules to destroy it. He had a friend called lolaos, who 
helped him to perform it. At his bidding, lolaos set the wood 
on fire and brought him a burning brand ; then Hercules began 



1261.] HERCULES. 3 

to cut off, one oy one, the heads of the Hydra, and, to prevent 
their growing again, burned out the wounds with the brand. 
Thus he conquered the monster, and dipped his arrows in its 
gall, which was a deadly poison, and made their wounds incur- 
able. This was his second labor. 

His third task was to catch, and bring alive to Mycenae, the 
stag of Ceryneia in Arcadia. This animal had golden antlers 
and brazen feet, and ran so fast that no arrow could reach it. 
Hercules followed it for a whole 3'ear, but at last hunted it 
down, and having wounded it with an arrow, caught, and 
carried it on his shoulders to Mycenae. 

Again, he was ordered to catch and bring alive, a savage 
boar, called the Erymanthian boar, after Mount Erymanthus, 
from which it came down into the plains of Arcadia and did 
great damage. Hercules chased it through the deep snow, 
caught it in a net, and took it alive to Eurystheus, who was 
so frightened that he hid himself in a cask. 

At that time Augeas was king of Elis ; he was ver}^ rich in 
cattle, but kept his many stables in a dreadfully filthy condition. 
Three thousand head of cattle had stood in those stables, 
which had not been cleaned for thirty years. Eurystheus 
ordered Hercules to clean them in one day. This seemed to 
be impossible, but Hercules did not shrink from doing it. He 
went and turned the rivers Alpheus and Peneus through the 
stables, and thus performed the fifth task. 

After that he was ordered to drive away the Stymphalian 
birds, which were found in countless swarms in the thickly 
wooded land about Lake Stymphalus in Arcadia. They were 
terrible creatures with brazen beaks, claws, and wings, which 
used their feathers as arrows and devoured man and beast. 
Hercules could not have performed this work without the help 
of a goddess, called Athena, who gave him a brazen rattle, 
which made an awful noise. With this rattle he frightened 
the birds out of their hiding-places, and killed them with his 
arrows as they tried to fly away. Although he could not kill 



4 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

all, he succeeded in driving them off, and ridding the countrj^ 
of the scourge. That was his sixth work. 

His next task was to catch alive the mad bull which laid 
waste the fields of Crete, and was known as the Cretan bull. 
He not only caught him, but made him so tame that he rode on 
his back, and took him to Mycense. 

Not knowing what to do with him, Eurystheus set him free 
again. 

In those days there lived in Thrace a very cruel king, called 
Diomedes, who owned a breed of wild mares which he fed with 
human flesh. Strangers who came to his country he made pris- 
oners, and flung them before those terrible mares, which ate them 
up. Eurystheus told Hercules to fetch those mares to Mycenae. 
When he came to Thrace he managed to seize the cruel Diome- 
des, flung him before the mares, which devoured him and then 
became so tame that he had no trouble in taking them to P^urys- 
theus. The latter caused them to be driven into the mountains, 
where wild beasts destroyed them. 

Eurystheus had a daughter, called Admete, who desired to 
have the girdle of Hippolite, the queen of the Amazons, a race 
of warrior women who lived on l^he eastern shore of the Black 
Sea. That girdle was very bealitiful, a present from Ares, the 
queen's father : she greatly prized and wore it as a badge of her 
royalty. 

This famous girdle Hercules was ordered to fetch. Accom- 
panied by a number of friends, he sailed in a boat, and, after 
sundry adventures, landed in the country of the Amazons, 
whose queen received him kindly and promised him her girdle. 
But a goddess, called Hera, or Juno, an enemy of Hercules, 
disguised as an Amazon, spread the report that a stranger was 
about to rob their queen. The Amazons rushed to arms ; and 
Hercules, thinking that the queen had deceived him, gave them 
battle, killed the queen, and secured the girdle. Some say that 
he did not kill her, but that Melanippe, the queen's sister, was 
wounded, taken prisoner, and exchanged for the-girdle, which 



1261.] HERCULES. 5 

Hercules took to Aclmete, and thus performed the ninth 
labor. 

His next work was the difficult and dangerous task of fetch- 
ing the oxen of Geryones, a giant of monster size, who had 
three bodies, lived in the island of Erytheia, and owned a 
famous herd of cattle, guarded by the giant Eurytion, and a 
two-headed dog, called Orthrus. On his way to the distant 
place, he set up two pillars, one on each side of the Straits of 
Gibraltar, which the ancients called the Pillars of Hercules. 
On landing, he was attacked by the giant keeper and his dog, 
but he slew first the dog and then the keeper. The herd seemed 
to be his, but on his way to the sea, Geryones stopped him ; 
they fought together, Hercules slew the giant, and secured the 
oxen, which he finally brought to Eurystheus, and thus com- 
pleted the ten labors. 

Eurystheus thought that two of them had not been done 
right, and gave him two others in addition. He ordered Her- 
cules to fetch the golden apples of the Hesperides. This was 
a very hard task, for at first he did not know where they grew. 
He had to travel hither and thither for a long while, and after 
many and perilous adventures, finally learned from Nereus that 
the gardens of the Hesperides lay on Mount Atlas, in the 
country of the Hyperboreans. The Hesperides were nymphs 
or goddesses charged to guard waters, woods, and mountains. 
These nymphs had been set to watch a wonderful tree which bore 
golden fruit, whose beautiful glitter led them to eat of the fruit, 
which was forbidden them. Then the goddess Juno appointed a 
terrible dragon, called Ladon, to watch the tree. Now Nereus 
had told Hercules it were better that Atlas, who bore the 
heavens on his shoulders, should go for the apples, and not 
himself ; so when he came to Atlas he begged him to go, and 
offered to do his work. Atlas agreed and Hercules took his 
place. The former understood how to put the dragon to sleep, 
to outwit the nymphs, and to carry three apples to Hercules, 
but told him he intended to take them to Eurystheus himself, 



6 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

and that the hero should continue to carry the heavens. Her- 
cules made believe he would, and asked Atlas to oblige him by 
taking his place for a little time, until he had found some- 
thing wherewith to cover his head to sustain the burden. Atlas 
agreed, cast down the apples, and took up his old burden, 
when Hercules seized them, and hastened away. 

But the most difficult of all his labors was the twelfth and last^ 
for this was nothing less than to fetch Cerberus from the lower 
world. It was a horrid monster dog with three heads, the tail 
of a serpent, and a mane whose hairs were the heads of poison- 
ous snakes. When Hercules, guided b}" Hermes, reached the 
presence of Pluto, the ruler of the lower world, and had made 
known his purpose, the king gave him leave to carry it out, but 
forbade him to do it by force of arms. Fearless, and without 
any other protection than his lion's-skin and breastplate, Her- 
cules found the monster at the mouth of the river Acheron, 
clutched his throat with one hand, and his legs with the other, 
deaf to the forbidding bark of his three heads, and undismayed 
by the hisses of the snakes, dragged him to the light of day, 
and set him before Eurj^stheus ; awe-struck, he bade Hercules 
let him go free, who thereupon took him back to the lower 
world. "" 

Having now at last become his own master, Hercules re- 
turned to Thebes, but had the misfortune of losing his mind, 
and of committing in that sad condition not a few acts of vio- 
lence. Occasionally, however, his madness left him, and then 
he was filled with grief and shame for what he had done. He 
went to the oracle at Delphi, and being told that he could not 
be cured unless he became a slave again, entered the service of 
Omphale, queen of Lydia, a kingdom in the western part of 
Asia Minor. She had great power over him, for she made him 
wear women's clothes, and spin wool, while she put on his lion's- 
skin. 

When his three years' service was over, he left her and per- 
formed many acts of valor ; afterwards he married Deianeira, 



1261.] HERCULES. 7 

the daughter of CEneus, who had promised her to the bravest 
of her suitors. Hercules fought for her with Achelous, and 
coming off conqueror, secured the prize. 

They had not been married long when Hercules at a meal 
accidentally killed a boy called Eunomus, and was compelled 
by the law of the country to go into banishment. Deianeira, 
Ills wife, of course, went with him. 

On their journey they had to cross the river Euenus, where 
a centaur called Nessus made a living by carrying travellers on 
his back across. This centaur, the upper part of whose body 
was that of a man, but his lower part that of a horse with four 
feet, carried Deianeira, while Hercules forded the river. The 
centaur was rude to her, and Hercules hearing her cr}^, pierced 
him with an arrow; Nessus, mortally wounded, bade Deianeira 
save his blood as a sure means of making Hercules always love 
her. So she carried some away with her. 

Not long after this he conquered Eurytus and his sons, and 
captured lole, his daughter, whom he carried awa}^ as a pris- 
oner. Now lole was very beautiful, and Deianeira, becoming 
jealous of her, remembered the blood of Nessus, and dipped in 
it the garment which Hercules used to wear when he went to 
sacrifice. He had hardly put it on when his body began to 
ache with intolerable pains. It seems that the arrow with which 
he had killed Nessus was poisoned, that the poison, of course, 
had poisoned his blood, and that his garment from having been 
dipped in it had also become poisoned. In his agony he tried 
to fling it aside, but could not, for it stuck so close to his body, 
that he had to tear off whole pieces of flesh. In such sore 
plight he was carried to Trachis, where Deianeira, in the 
despair of her grief, took her own life ; at his bidding, Hercules 
was taken up to Mount CEta ; there he ascended a pile of 
wood, which a shepherd set on fire, when Jupiter sent a cloud 
from heaven, and carried him, amid thunder and lightning, to 
Olympus, where he became one of the immortals. 



ANCIENT HISTORY, 



[B.C. 



REFERENCES. 

A full and consecutive account of the Mythology and the Heroic 
Age of Ancient Greece is found in Grote's " History of Greece," vol. 
I. pp. 47-391, I^ew York, 1883, and satisfactory notices of mythologi- 
cal persons in alphabetical order, generally with references to classical 
authors, are given in Smith, "Dictionary of Greek and Roman 
Biography and Mythology," 3 vols., London, 1849, 1880. 




1100-776.] LYCURGUS. 



LYCURGUS. 

The city of Sparta, also called Lacedaemon, was the about 
capital of Laconia, situated at the southern extremity 776 
of the peninsula of the Peloponnesus. It had been con- about 
quered by the Dorians, and was ruled by two kings. HOC 
One of them, called Euuomus, had two sons, Polydectes and 
Lycurgus. The former succeeded his father, but died soon ; 
his widow, desiring Lycurgus to share the throne with her, pro- 
posed to destroy the infant son of Polydectes ; but Lycurgus, 
feigning consent, took the child and showed him to the people 
as their king, calling him, because of the joy with which the}^ 
greeted him, Charilaus, signifying joy of the people. 

The mother, out of revenge, falsely charged L3'curgus with 
ill designs upon the child, which led him to leave Sparta, and 
spend many years in extensive travels, said to have extended as 
far as Iberia, Egypt, and India. During his absence, the affairs 
of Sparta had gone from bad to worse ; and the people entreated 
Lycurgus on his return to restore order. King Charilaus at 
first did not favor the movement, but afterwards stood by his 
uncle, who at once framed a body of laws bearing upon the 
government, as well as upon the public and private life of the 
people ; their adoption, however, met with great opposition, 
and, in one of the riots which they occasioned, the people tried 
to stone Lycurgus, who sought refuge in a temple, when a 
youth, called Alcander, struck him and put out his eye. Turn- 
ing to his pursuers, he silently showed them his bleeding face ; 
overcome with shame and sorrow, they accompanied Lycurgus 
to his home, and delivered to him the offender. The lawgiver 
dismissed the people, thanking them for their conduct, and 
without a harsh word bade the youth become his servant. He 



10 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

obeyed, learned to love his great master, and was never more 
happy than in proclaiming his praise. 

In memory of this occurrence, Lycurgus built a temple in 
honor of Minerva, which he called Optiletis, because in the 
Doric dialect the word optilos signifies an eye. When at last 
all opposition to his laws had ceased, and they had been sol- 
emnly ratified by the people, swearing that the}^ would observe 
them unchanged until his return from a journe}', he set out for 
Delphi, and there asked the oracle if his laws were good, and 
if they sufficed to make the Spartans virtuous and happy. The 
reply came that the laws were perfect, and. that the Spartans 
would be the most glorious and prosperous people as long as 
they observed them. He sent a copy of this reply to Sparta, 
but never returned himself. Some say that from love for his 
country he starved himself to death ; but the truth is, that the 
time, the place, and the circumstances of his death are not 
known . 

Sparta had two kings, not chosen, but the sons succeeding 
their fathers ; such kings are called hereditary. The circum- 
stance that Aristodemus had left twin sons, Eurysthenes and 
Procles, as successors, is said to be the origin of this peculiar 
institution. These kings were high priests, chief commanders 
of the army, and the presiding officers in the assembly of the 
people. They had five ministers or advisers, called epliors^ 
who were chosen ever^^ year from the people, and were the real 
rulers. 

Sparta had also a senate, called gerusia^ or council of elders, 
composed of twenty-eight, or, counting the kings, of thirty 
members, who were elected for life from men not under sixty 
years of age. It was their duty to consider every law before 
it was given to the assembly of the people, and to decide as 
judges all criminal cases of life or death. In the assembly of 
the people, there was no debate in public ; and all matters were 
voted upon by yeas and nays. 

The population of Laconia consisted of Spartans, who were 



1100-776.] LYCURGUS. H 

the ruling class ; of villagers, called perimd^ like the Spartans, 
free, though bound to obey the laws which they did not help to 
make; and of serfs, called helots^ who, though not exactly 
slaves, were bound to the land owned by their masters. They 
are thought to have been originally prisoners of war ; and their 
masters were always afraid of them, for they hated their 
oppressors ; and it was said of them that the}'' would gladly 
" have eaten the flesh of the Spartans raw." 

Being surrounded by enemies, the Spartans were naturally a 
nation of soldiers ; and the laws of Lycurgus were designed to 
train them for war and make them invincible in battle. 

Ever}^ new-born child was publicly examined, and if weakly 
or in any way deformed, taken to Mount Taygetus to perish. 
In order to harden them, they were compelled to wear the same 
garment summer and winter, live on spare and coarse diet, and 
to become early proficient in running, swimming, and throwing 
stones. At the age of seven, children were taken from their 
parents, and placed in the public schools, where all lived, 
learned, and played together. The places where, lightly clad, 
they exercised were called gymnasia, from a Greek word which 
means naked, or lightly clad. 

Their education at school was not like yours. They did not 
stud}^ much ; they were taught a little reading and writing, and 
the art of using the least number of words in speaking ; the 
main things for them to learn were implicit obedience to their 
superiors, respect for their elders, endurance in hardship, and 
victory in contests. These are certainly most praiseworthy, and 
I hope 3'ou ma}^ learn to excel in them, but I want you to detest 
some of the things the young Spartans were taught. Because 
soldiers must be not only brave, but also wise and provident, 
the Spartan boys were encouraged to practise cunning, and even 
theft. Being always more or less hungry because of their scant 
fare, they tried to pick and steal whatever they could as regular 
sneak thieves, and when caught in the act, were punished with 
fasting, not for having stolen, but for having done it clumsily. 



12 ANCIENT HISTORY, [B.C. 

They were so afraid of being found out, that a boy who had 
stolen a young fox and concealed it under his garment allowed 
the animal to tear and bite him to death without uttering a cry. 
This example is sometimes cited also in proof of their great 
self-command, and it is well known, that naughty children were 
publicly whipped in the temple of Diana until the blood came, 
without a cry, or even an expression of pain, and that many 
actually died under the punishment. 

Fear in darkness or solitude 5 the tears and cries of pain, the 
youngest children were taught to detest as cowardly ; therefore 
cowardice was the greatest disgrace, and flight in battle infamy. 
A Spartan mother would give to her son a shield on going into 
war, saying, "Return with it, or upon it." Another Spartan 
mother, hearing that her son had died in battle, asked, "Did 
he win?" and learning that he did, continued, " That's why I 
gave birth to him, that he might know how to die for his 
country." 

The education of such mothers must in many respects have 
been like that of their husbands. The girls were taught gym- 
nastics, and became skilled in running, wrestling, and boxing. 
At the age of twenty they usually married, and though the}' 
saw not much of their husban^^, they were greatly respected by 
them, and their lot was far happier than that of the women of 
other lands. 

A Spartan became of age at thirty, and was not allowed to 
marry before. After his marriage he neither lived with his 
wife, nor took his meals at home. His time was fully occupied 
with military duties, and he was bound to eat at the public 
mess and sleep in the public barracks. 

This public mess all Spartan men, even their kings, were 
bound to frequent. Fifteen persons sat at one table. Each 
person had to furnish a fixed quantity of flour, cheese, wine, 
and figs, and to contribute a certain amount of money for meat. 
Children also were allowed to be present, and taught the man- 
ners and wisdom of their elders, especially discreet silence ; 



1100-776.] LYCURGUS. 13 

whoever entered the room was told by the oldest of the corn- 
pan}', " Not a word of what is said here must be carried out 
there/' that is, through the door to which he was pointing. 

The meal was very simple, and the daily dish was the famous 
black broth, or pottage of pork, blood, vinegar, and salt. The 
old people were ver}- fond of it, and gave the meat to the 
younger. A certain king secured a Spartan cook on purpose 
to have him make the black broth. Tasting it he found it so 
bad, that he scolded the cook, wiio replied, " Of course you do 
not like it, for it is not good with seasoning, and that is a bath 
in the Eurotas, before you eat it." This is an old form of the 
homely proverb that " hunger is the best sauce." 

Lycurgus, in order to prevent the people becoming miserly 
and dissatisfied, divided all the land in equal portions, so that 
every Spartan owned as much land as his neighbor, and intro- 
duced iron money, which had so little value, and was so large 
and heavy, that nobody thought of hoarding it ; two hundred 
dollars of that money filled a large room, and made a good load 
for two oxen to draw. This may have been successful for a 
time, but not very long, for according to an old Greek proverb 
the Spartans of a later age must have been very close, for it ran 
thus, " Much money goes into Sparta, but none comes out." 

In times of peace, the public life at Sparta was pleasant, for 
the public meals, the festivals, the chase, and the games afforded 
much diversion to the people. They also loved to sing and play 
the lyre. 

The country of the Spartans was called Laconia, and because 
their language was pointed and telling, we still call to this day 
a short, pithy, and witty speech, laconic. 

Lycurgus himself was very witty. Being asked by the Spar- 
tans what they should do to keep awa}' their enemies, he re- 
plied, " Remain poor, and covet not to have more than your 
neighbor." When they asked his advice about building walls 
round their city, he said, "A city surrounded by brave men 
has the best walls." 



14 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

The following are examples of laconic replies. An Athenian 
orator once said in the hearing of a Spartan, that the Lacedse- 
monians were an ignorant people. "You are right," replied the 
Spartan, " for of all the Greeks we alone have learned nothing 
bad from you." Some one asked Archidamidas ^ to tell him the 
population of Sparta. "Enough," he said, "to drive off the 
wicked." A troublesome questioner desired a Spartan to de- 
scribe the best citizen of Sparta, and received the startling 
reply, " He who resembles 3^ou least." 

A Spartan was once invited to go and hear a man who was 
famous for imitating the nightingale, and declined, saying, "I 
have often heard the nightingale itself." 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch's " Lycurgus " ; Haase's edition of Xenophon's " Lacedae- 
monian Republic," and Aristotle's " Politics " contain the ancient 
literature. Grote, " History of Greece," vol. I. pp. 463-506 ; Smith, 
"History of Greece," pp. 60-71; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., under 
" Lycurgus." 

1 Phitarch being the only writer Avho mentions Archidamiclas, it is 
thought that he may have confounded him with Archidamus, the name of 
several Spartan kings, of one of whom ^lianus mentions the following 
anecdote : — 

An old man of Cos, being sent on an embassy to Sparta, and ashamed 
of his white hair, dyed it black ; and, thus disguised, entered the council 
and stated the object of his mission. Archidamus then rose and said : 
" What good can be expected of a man who carries falsehood, not only in 
his heart, but on his head 1 " 




752-594.] SOLON. I5 



SOLON. [594 

Very little is known of the early history of Athens. Cecrops, 
a native of Sais in Egypt, is said to have founded the city, 
required the people to marry, and taught them religion. The 
acropolis, or fortress of Athens, doubtless in his memory, was 
called for a long time Cecropia. The original division of Attica 
into twelve little kingdoms is also ascribed to him. But no one 
knows when this took place. 

The last king who reigned at Athens was Codrus, who did a 

very noble thing at the time of the Dorian invasion of Attica. 

The oracle foretold that the Dorians would conquer if they 

spared the life of the king of Athens. To save his countr}' 

Codrus resolved to sacrifice himself ; he entered the camp of the 

Dorians in disguise, quarrelled with the soldiers, and was killed. 

The invaders, learning whom they had slain, took fright and 

left the country. The Athenians, grateful for what he had 

done, abolished the title of king, created the new office of 

archon, or ruler, and gave it to Medon, the son of Codrus, 

who, as well as eleven of his descendants held it ^r life in 

succession. The thirteenth descendant of Medon held r 

752 
it for ten years ; about forty years later, it was opened 

to all nobles ; and still later the duration of the office was 

reduced from ten years to one 3'ear, while the number of the 

archons was raised from one to nine. Eryxias was the last 

archon who held office for ten years, and Creon the first of the 

nine archons who ruled only one year. One of these nine 

presided over the rest, and was called the archon, and the year 

in which he reigned was named after him. 

In course of time, the ancient kingdom of Athens became a 

republic. The president, or first of the archons, was called 



16 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

the arclion ; the second was called basileus, or king, and acted 
as high priest ; the third was called polemarch, and was com- 
mander-in-chief ; the other six archons were thesmotetcB, or 
legislators. 

In course of time, the affairs of the republic became much 
disturbed by the oppressions of the ruling class, called eujja- 
trids^ or those of noble descent, to the injury of the demiurgic 
or artisans, and of the geomori, or husbandmen. 

The great lawgiver Draco drew .up a code of written laws 
designed to restore order ; but the great severity of his laws 
made matters worse, for they punished all crimes alike with 
death ; the petty thief and the murderer forfeited their lives. 
A revolution took place twelve years after their enactment, 
until, through the exertions of Epimenides, a great seer, and 
Solon, the lawgiver, order, contentment, and harmony were 
established. 

Solon is believed to have been a descendant of Codrus, and 
was born about B.C. 638. Execestides, his father, was a man 
of moderate means, and the early manhood of Solon was spent 
in commercial pursuits, necessitating frequent travels through 
Greece and into Asia, and furnishing opportunities for personal 
intercourse with the most emfn^ht men of his time. His fame 
for ability was so great that he was numbered with the seven 
sages of Greece.^ 

His first great success in public life was the recovery of the 
island of Salamis, which had revolted to Megara. There is little 
doubt that he took the town by stratagem, and the account generally 
believed to be true, is, that Solon at the head of an expedition 
of five hundred volunteers, set sail for Salamis with a number 
of fishing boats and a vessel of thirty oars, and cast anchor at 
a given place. The Megarians, who watched the movement 
with suspicion, rushed to arms in much confusion, and sent out 



1 They were : Solon, Thales, Pittacus, Periander, Cleobulus, Chilon, and 
Bias. 



594-560.] SOLON. 17 

a vessel to reconnoitre. It approached too near the Athenians 
and was taken. Solon displaced the crew by picked Athenians, 
and ordered the vessel as stealthily as possible to sail for the 
city, while he, with the rest of his men, approached on land 
and engaged the Megarians. In the midst of the conflict, the 
troops on board the vessel took to their boats and surprised 
the city. 

At that time the rich, who under the law were empowered to 
seize the property and the person of delinquent debtors, had 
caused great misery by enforcing their right, and reducing 
many free-born citizens to domestic slavery, and selling others 
to barbarian masters. The poor threatened to rise in insur- 
rection, and the rich, in the critical state of the country, 
thinking that Solon, as one of their class, wojuld help them, 
made him archon with unlimited power. Instead of taking 
sides, or acting from selfish motives, the measures he adopted 
were so just, wise, and successful, that his fellow-citizens 
requested him to frame a new constitution and a new code of 
laws. 

Having concluded this great work, he left Athens and spent 
ten years in travel to Egypt, Cyprus, and Asia Minor. On 
his return he found to his sorrow that his cousin, Pisistratus, 
an ambitious and unscrupulous man, sought to set aside the 
constitution, and make himself despot of Athens. Solon tried 
in vain to prevent that calamity, and did not long sur- p 
vive it. He died at the ripe old age of eighty, and his 
ashes were scattered, at his request, round the island of 
Salamis. 

Before naming some of the laws of Solon, the story of 
Croesus seems to be in place- That monarch was one of the 
most powerful and wealthy of Asia Minor, and resided at 
Sardis, the capital of Lydia. Having invited Solon to visit 
him, he received him in all the pomp and splendor of his 
glittering court, and commanded that all the treasures of the 
palace should be shown to him. Returned from their survey, 



18 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Croesus asked Solon if he had ever known a more happy man 
than hhn, expecting him to say no. To his surprise, Solon said 
yes, and named Tellus of Athens, a man of means, blessed 
with excellent sons, who had died gloriously in the defence of 
his country. The king then asked him, if he could name 
beside Tellus another man who excelled him in happiness. 
Solon mentioned Cleobis and Biton, two brothers remarkable 
not only for the love the}^ bore to each other, but to their 
mother, who was a priestess of Juno. One day, when public 
duty called her to the temple, and the oxen of her car had not 
come in time, her sons took the oxen's place and drew the car 
over a distance of about five miles. Their praise was on every 
lip, and the happy mother prayed the goddess to reward them 
with the greatest blessing. After the sacrifice the brothers 
went to sleep, and never woke again. Thus the goddess 
accorded them a happy and glorious death, which is the 
greatest blessing mortals may enjoy. Then Croesus asked, not 
without displeasure, "And so you do not think me happy?" 
when Solon quietly discoursed to him about the inconstanc}^ of 
fortune, and told him that, though he were a great and wealthy 
king, he could not call him happy until he knew how he had 
ended his life. 

Croesus in consequence had but a contemptible opinion of 
Solon until after his defeat by Cyrus, the Persian, who took 
his city, made him prisoner, and condemned him to be burnt 
to death. On the pyre he recalled the words of Solon, and in 
a loud voice cried, "O Solon, Solon, Solon !" Cyrus, who was 
present, desired to know the meaning of his calling, and when 
Croesus had explained the matter, he was touched by so striking 
a confirmation of the opinion of Solon, ordered Croesus to be 
set free, and made him his friend. 

Thus Solon was the means of having saved the life of one 
king, and the honor of another, by a wise word uttered in 
season. 

As to the laws of Solon, he began with setting aside those 



594-560.] SOLON. 19 

of Draco, except those relating to murder. He made a new 
division of the population into four classes according to their 
property, the first called Fentacosiomedimni,^ or persons with 
an annual income of five hundred medimni of corn, and 
upwards ; the second, with an income of three hundred, called 
'knights from their ability to furnish a warhorse ; the third, with 
an income of from two to three hundred, called yokemen from 
their ability to keep a yoke of oxen ; and the fourth, called 
tJietes, or hired men, with an income of less than two hundred. 
The first three classes had to pay an income tax and were 
eligible to public offices ; the fourth class was not taxed, but 
privileged to cast their votes in the public assembly. The 
change was very great, for the government passed from the 
hands of a few into those of the many. A form of government 
in which a feiv are rulers is called an oligarchy, one in which 
the rule devolves upon persons assessed for their property is 
called a timocracy. 

Nine archons, assisted by a council or senate of four hundred 
members, elected annually for a term of one year, formed the 
supreme government ; there was a popular assembly, which 
had the power of passing or rejecting the laws introduced by 
the senate, of deciding questions of peace or war, of oflSce, and 
of citizenship. 

The highest criminal court was the council of the Areopagus, 
which was called " the eye of the law," and held its sessions at 
night ; the judges used black and white pebbles, the black to 
condemn, the white to acquit the accused ; if the number of 
white stones equalled that of the black, the case was held to 
have been decided by the gods in favor of the accused. 

The laws of Solon were very favorable to the growth of com- 
merce and manufacture, and specially directed to education. 

The gymnasia were excellent institutions where youth was 

^ The word signifies 500 medimni, a medimnus being a measure contain- 
ing 1^ bushels. 



20 ANCIENT HIbdVRY, [B.G 

taught whatever tends to invigorate the body, and equip the 
mind with useful and noble attainments. Music, poetry, art, 
and science, philosophy and elocution all entered into the edu- 
cation of the Athenian youth. 

The laws of Solon aimed at the useful occupation of every 
citizen, and punished idleness. 

A thief had to restore double the amount he had taken ; 
speaking evil of the dead, or the living, was a punishable 
offence ; a person who, in a time of political disturbance, re- 
fused to take side with either party was made infamous. 

The laws of Solon, though very numerous, have only come 
down to us in small fragments. They were written on wooden 
rollers and triangular tablets, and kept first in the Acropolis, 
but later in the Prytaneum, or town-hall. 

Solon also revised the calendar, and was the first who intro- 
duced among the Greeks months of twenty-nine and thirty days 
alternately. 

It is interesting to know that Solon used the familiar phrase 
that, " in all great measures it is diflScult to please everybody," 
when, in order to test the goodness of his laws, he left his 
native country. 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch's " Solon " ; Grote, " History of Greece," vol. I. pp. 576- 
613; Thirlwall, "History of Greece," vol. 11. pp. 27-56; Smith, 
"History of Greece," pp. 1^4-101 ; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., under 
"Solon." 




500-492.] MILTJADES. 21 



MILTIADES. 

After the conquest of L3^clia, C3TUS undertook the reduction 
of the Greek colonies established on the coast of Asia Minor. 
These colonies were settled by three distinct nationalities or 
races, called the Cohans, who occupied the northern part of 
the coast ; the lonians, who had dwelt in the central part ; and 
the Dorians, who had chosen the southern part. These Asiatic 
Greeks chafed under the Persian yoke, and about fifty years 
later, rose against Darius Hystaspes, who then was the r- 
Great King, for so the Persian monarch was described. 
He marched against the insurgents and speedily reduced them. 
Learning that the Athenians had aided the Asiatic Greeks 
with an armament, Darius was very angry, and shooting an 
arrow as high as he could, exclaimed, " Grant me, Zeus, to 
avenge myself on the Athenians ! " That was his way of 
swearing revenge. He also bade one of his servants remind 
him of his oath by exclaiming thrice a da}^ at his dinner, 
' ' Master, remember the Athenians ! " 

He did not forget them. He collected a large army and a 
powerful fleet, commanded by Mardonius, by which he r- 
hoped to conquer Greece. The armament was set in 
motion ; the army crossed the Hellespont and subdued parts of 
Thr'ace ; the fleet sailed along the coast of Europe and doubled 
mount Athos ; off the promontory of that mountain it was 
overtaken by a fearful storm in which 300 ships were destroyed, 
and not less than 20,000 men either drowned or cast ashore. 
The army was equally unfortunate. The Thracians in a night 
attack surprised the Persians, almost annihilated them, and 
even wounded Mardonius, who had to return home in disgrace 
and mortification at not having even seen the enemy against 



22 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

whom he had been sent. Darius never employed him again, 
but his purpose of punishing the Greeks remained unbroken, 
and he commanded the formation of a second and more formi- 
dable armament. 

Pending the preparations, he sent heralds to most of the 
Grecian cities to demand from them earth and water in token 
of their submission. Many of the continental cities and of 
the islands complied with his request, and handed to his her- 
alds a cup of water, in token that their rivers and seas ac- 
knowledged his dominion, and another filled with earth, in 
token that their land submitted to his rule. But at Sparta and 
Athens the heralds met with different treatment. In the latter 
place the citizens threw them into a deep pit, which had been 
sometimes used for the punishment of criminals ; and in Sparta 
the herald was cast into a well, and bidden to help himself. 

When Darius heard what had happened, he sent for Datis 
-n and Artaphernes, his generals, saying, " Set out for 
Greece, make slaves of the men of Athens, and pro- 
duce them here." Soon an armament of 600 triremes, with 
numerous transports for men and horses, was on the way. 
Some of the vessels were loaded with chains intended for the 
Greeks, and in one of them was placed a huge block of marble 
destined to be set up as a trophy upon the ruins of Athens. 
Warned by the experience of Mardonius, the Persian com- 
mander sailed across the ^gean from Samos to Euboea, took 
Eretria, burnt its temples, and dragged the citizens into slavery. 

Then they crossed over to Attica, and landed in the bay of 
Marathon, on the eastern coast, and distant from Athens by 
one road twenty miles, by another twenty-six, equal to about 
six hours and a half of computed march. The danger was 
therefore at the very doors of Athens. 

The consternation in that city was excessive. Pheidippides, 
a runner, was sent to Sparta to solicit aid. He ran the dis- 
tance of 150 miles in 48 hours, but unfortunately arrived on 
th| ninth day of the moon, when according to ancient custom 



490.] MILTIADES. 23 

it was not lawful for the Spartans to march, but they promised 
to come immediately after the full moon. The Athenians were 
consequently left without aid from Sparta, but the noble and 
valiant Platseans sent unasked the whole of their martial 
strength, consisting of 1,000 soldiers. The Athenians them- 
selves mustered 9,000 strong, and the whole of their fight- 
ing force numbered only 10,000, with which they marched 
against the Persians, whose strength cannot have been less 
than 110,000 men. 

Marathon, on the margin of a bay E.N.E. from Athens, is 
naturally separated from that city by the lofty ridge of Mount 
Pentelicus. The bay is deep, and has a shore favorable for 
landing ; the plain is six miles long, and at no point more than 
a mile and a half wide. At either end of the bay is a marsh, 
of which the northern is at all seasons impassable at certain 
points, while the southern is generally dry at the end of 
summer. On the hard, sandy plain, without a single tree 
standing on it, between these marshes, with the sea to the 
eastward, and an amphitheatre of rocky hills to the westward, 
was fought the battle of Marathon. 

The Athenians were posted on the high ground above this 
level stretch. The Persians, who had drawn up their ships to 
the beach, formed in the plain. In their centre, with them 
the place of honor, stood native Persians, and Sacae, the flower 
of their arm3^ With the Greeks, the post of honor was the 
right wing, commanded by Callimachus ; the soldiers were 
ranged in the order of their tribes, from right to left ; and the 
Platasans stood at the extreme left. As the Persians greatly 
outnumbered the Greeks, and displayed an extended front, 
Miltiades had to form his line accordingly^, to prevent the 
enemy taking him in the flank. His centre, therefore, was 
thinner and weaker than his wings. 

Fear, amounting almost to terror, befell the Athenians when 
they beheld the countless hosts of the invaders ; and they were 
for leaving the field and returning home. But Miltiades cahned 



24 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

their fear, and inspired them with courage. '' Soldiers," he 
cried, " if we do not begin the conflict as brave men, but leave 
the field as cowards to the enemy, our flight will make him 
bold ; he will pursue, attack, and beat us ; our city will fall a 
prey to the wild Asiatics ; and we ourselves will be carried into 
slavery. Away with hesitation, Greeks ; let us be united, 
united for the conflict ! this alone will save us, and save the 
liberty of Greece ! " 

This speech told ; and down rushed the soldiers under the 
animating paean or war-cry to the charge, which shook the 
Persians, and drove them back to some distance in the wings ; 
but in the centre, where the Athenians were weakest, the 
Persians made sad havoc, and chased them. At that moment, 
Miltiades ordered his victorious wings to stay the pursuit of the 
flying enemy, and sweep round to the protection and reforming 
of his centre. The order was well executed ; the pursuit of 
the Persians became general, who, panic-stricken, made for 
their ships. Not a few of their number perished in the marsh ; 
and the Athenians succeeded in destroying by fire seven of 
their ships before they could gain the sea. Once safe at sea, 
the Persians recovered fromi their fright ; and their fleet was 
ordered to sail for Athens, which they hoped to surprise, 
directed by the signal of a burnished shield, lifted by traitor 
hands on a lofty point of the Attic highlands, which caught and 
reflected the rays of the sun. Fortunately the signal was seen 
not only by the Persians, but also by Miltiades, who, divining 
its purport, ordered his victorious army to march without a 
moment's delay, from the field of their glory, towards Athens, 
and succeeded in gaining the port just before the fleet of Datis 
appeared off Phalerum. 

Afraid to disembark a second time on Attic soil before the 
self -same warriors who had so recently chased his troops from 
the plain of Marathon, the Persian commander, with great 
chagrin, sailed homewards ; and Athens, for the time at least, 
escaped the terrors of a Persian occupation. 



490.] MILTIADES. 25 

Aristides had been left in charge of the field of Marathon, 
the fallen heroes, and the spoil, which included the camp of the 
Persians, with all its treasures, as well as the chains and the 
block of marble. The Persian dead numbered 6,400, the 
Athenians 192. But besides these, another Athenian died a 
glorious death, who, desirous of carrying the good tidings to 
Athens, ran from the battle-field in eager haste, arrived out of 
breath, crying, " Athens, rejoice ; we have won," and fell down 
dead. 

A tumulus was erected on the spot in honor of the 192 ; a 
second tumulus for the slain Platseans ; a third for the slaves. 
Ten pillars, one for each tribe, inscribed with the names of the 
fallen, were also set up ; and a separate funeral monument was 
erected for Miltiades. 

The natives of Marathon paid divine honors to those heroes. 
Pausanias, who visited the battle-field 600 years afterwards, 
not only saw the tumulus, but read the names of the buried 
heroes on the monumental pillars. 

After the full moon, but also after the battle, appeared 2,000 
Spartans, who, by forced marches, had travelled in three days 
from Sparta to the Attic frontier. The battle had been fought ; 
and they contented themselves with a visit to the battle-field, 
where they saw the dead, and applauded the Athenian victors. 
Then they returned home. 

The battle of Marathon, though not a decisive defeat, was 
the first which Persia received from the Greeks in the field, and 
a proclamation to Greece that the advance of the invaders 
might not only be checked but, by united action, effectually 
repelled. 

The Athenians had the glory of being the first Greeks who, 
by their valor, discomfited an army of the dreaded Persians, 
many times as strong as their own, and drove them away 
covered with disgrace. 

As for Miltiades, it had been well for him to have died at 
Marathon. His success, and the unmeasured admiration of the 



26 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Athenians, turned his head. An unfortunate expedition against 
-| Paros, an island belonging to the group of the Cyclades, 
brought him into trouble and disgrace. A wound he 
had received took a fatal turn ; and for his failure he was 
fined in a sum of fifty talents, which, after his death, was paid 
by Cimon, his sou. It is sometimes said that he died in prison, 
but there is no evidence that such was the case. 



REFERENCES. 

Grote, "History of Greece," vol. II. pp. 178-214; Smith, "History 
of Greece," pp. 171-184; Thirlwall, " History of Greece," vol. II. and 
Appendix 2. See also Smith's " Dictionary," etc., under " Miltiades," 
and "Marathon"; Creasy, "Fifteen Decisive Battles." 

NOTE. 

Marathon. The actual number of Persians on board the fleet is 
estimated at 200,000 men ; of those engaged at 110,000 men. The 
Greek force, including attendants and servants, cannot have mustered 
more than 20,000 men. The armies stood therefore as 5 to 1. The 
Persian horse were not engaged, and the greatest loss of the Persians 
is believed to have taken place not in the battle, but in the great 
marsh in front of which a large portion of their fleet was drawn up. 
The famous picture of the battle in the Painted Portico represented 
the combatants as fighting on equal terms in the main engagement, 
and the Persians as suffering great loss in the distant marsh. 




485-480.] LEON IDAS AND THEMISTOCLES. 27 



LEONIDAS AND THEMISTOCLES. 

The news of the event of the battle of Marathon increased 
the anger of Darius and spurred him to j^et greater efforts 
for the reduction of Athens ; his preparations were p 
made on a colossal scale for four years, but he died, 
and was succeeded by Xerxes, his sou, in the throne, and in a 
renewed attempt for the conquest of Grreece. 

Proud, vain, and of only moderate ability, a despot wont to 
be served by slaves, he believed that to will was to do a thing, 
and in order to insure success, spent four other years in prepa- 
rations ; stores and magazines were established in the seaports 
of Thrace ; a canal, large enough to allow two triremes to sail 
abreast, was cut through the isthmus which connects the penin- 
sula of mount Athos with the main land ; huge cables were pro- 
cured for a bridge of boats across the Hellespont ; troops from 
every part of the Persian empire, representing not less than 
forty-six different nationalities, were summoned to assemble at 
Critalla in Cappadocia ; and an enormous fleet, larger than 
any ever collected before, was ordered to the Hellespont. 

In the spring Xerxes, who had spent the winter at r- 
Sardis, set out with his army, which was divided into 
two bodies, the king and his Persian guards in the midst. 

First came the baggage, and one-half of the army ; then a 
thousand Persian horse, followed by a thousand Persian spear- 
men ; next came ten sacred horses superbly caparisoned, the 
sacred car of Jove drawn by eight white horses, and then Xerxes 
in his royal chariot. Immediately after him came a thousand 
spearmen and a thousand horse followed by ten thousand Per- 
sian foot, called the "Immortals," and ten thousand horse. 



28 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

The second half of the army concluded the host, which pro- 
ceeded in the order given to Abydos. 

The first disaster encountered by Xerxes was the destruction 
of the bridge in a fierce storm, for which in his anger he pun- 
ished the engineers with death, and the sea with a hundred 
lashes, and fetters which he cast into it. 

He ordered two new bridges to be made, the one for the 
army, and the other for the baggage and beasts of burden. 
Seated on a marble throne he looked with pride on the multi- 
tudes of warriors which covered the land, and the large fleet 
which filled the waters. After certain religious rites the im- 
mense host began the passage of the Hellespont, which con- 
sumed seven days and seven nights. 

The army was ordered to halt on the plain of Doriscus, in 
Thrace, to be numbered. A myriad, that is 10,000 men, was 
massed together as closely as possible, and the place it occu- 
pied marked and enclosed. The first myriad then marched out, 
and another one filed in, until 170 myriads had passed through 
the enclosure. The cavalry mustered 80,000 men ; the service 
of the chariots and camels required 20,000 more. 

The fleet consisted of 1,207 triremes, each manned b}^ 200 
rowers, and 30 warriors ; and 3,000 smaller vessels, each with a 
crew of eight. At the review the total of the army and navy 
was 2,317,610 men, which by the addition of new forces was 
brought up at Thermopylae to 2,641,610 combatants. Adding 
not less than the same number of slaves, attendants, and the 
crews of transports, the grand total of the armament must have 
exceeded 5,000,000 of men. 

The army and the fleet effected a junction in the Thermaic 
bay, where Xerxes received the heralds who brought him earth 
and water from the greater part of Greece, and learned that 
Sparta and Athens, as well as the small towns of Plataea and 
Thespise in Boeotia refused the tokens. 

BoBN The soul of the resistance at Athens was Themistocles, 
514 the son of Neocles, a prominent citizen. Even as a child 



514-480.] LEONIDAS AND THEMISTOCLES. 29 

his uncommon qualities of mind were noted, and his teacher 
said to him, "My sou, you will not be anything little, but 
something great, either good or bad." As a young man he 
forsook his acquaintance, lost in thought. When asked to ex- 
plain his conduct, he replied, "The trophy of Miltiades keeps 
me from sleeping " ; for he believed that Marathon was the be- 
ginning of a fierce war, and strove to prepare Athens for it by 
the building of a fleet of 200 triremes, and an alliance with 
Sparta. 

The first resistance offered the Persians was at the pass of 
Thermopylae, situated between the steep and lofty mountain of 
(Eta, and an impassable morass on the edge of the Malian gulf. 
It was held by Leonidas of Sparta with only 300 of his country- 
men and about 7,000 allied troops, who had strengthened his 
position by rebuilding the old Phocian wall across the northern 
entrance. 

The idea of such a handful of men undertaking to arrest his 
millions excited the ridicule of Xerxes. A scout told him that 
he had seen the Lacedaemonians outside the wall, some engaged 
in sport, and others combing their hair. The king sent heralds 
requiring them to deliver their arms, to whom Leonidas replied, 
" Tell Xerxes to come and take them ! " The Greeks were told 
that the Persian host was so prodigious, that their arrows dark- 
ened the sun. " So much the better," coolly exclaimed a Spar- 
tan, " we shall then fight in the shade." 

Xerxes hesitated for several days, during which he hoped 
that the Lacedaemonians would come to their senses, and aban- 
don the pass. Then he ordered the Medes to take it, and bring 
its defenders before him. The Greeks stood in serried mass, 
holding in their left hands their brazen shields, from which the 
arrows of the Persians glanced harmlessly off, and presenting 
in their right an impenetrable forest of long spears. Band 
after band tried in vain to break it ; they only met death, 
and the new comers were hurled back over the bodies of 
their comrades. The myriad of " the Immortals " were sent 



30 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

next, and fared worse. The Persians refused to enter the 
fatal pass. 

Enraged at the inglorious repulse, Xerxes leaped thrice from 
the throne, from which he witnessed the struggle, and com- 
manded his reluctant warriors to be lashed into the pass, where 
certain death awaited them. 

The valor of Leonidas and his Spartans might check the 
advance of the Persians, but it could not avert the con- 
sequences of the treason of Ephialtes, a Malian, who betrayed 
to Xerxes the secret of a foot-path over the mountains, by 
which his soldiers found their way to the rear of Leonidas. 

Apprised of the treason, he bade all who were not Spartans 
return to their homes. Arrayed in his royal robe he sacrificed 
to his native gods, and with his 300 Spartans sate down to a 
parting meal. Then the}' rushed forth, and charging the enemy 
with desperate valor, dealt death arouud them. The Per- 
sians, though constantl}^ whipped to fight, dreaded to face this 
handful of heroes, who defied them until their spears were 
broken. When they had only their swords left, were thinned 
in numbers, exhausted by fatigue and wounds, and Leonidas 
-| had been slain, the noble remnant retired within the 
pass, and, covered witlf the missiles of the Persians, 
were killed to a man. 

The hillock on which they made their last stand became 
afterwards the site of a marble lion, erected in honor of 
Leonidas, and of two monumental pillars, the one bearing the 
proud inscription that "4,000 Peloponnesians had here fought 
with 3,000,000 of foes" ; and the other, the simple and touching 
legend, "Go, wand'rer, and at Sparta tell, that here, obedient 
to her laws, we fell." 

Nothing could now stay the advance of the Persians, who 
ravaged the countr}^, set on fire the towns and villages through 
which they passed, and drove before them the unhappy 
inhabitants, who fled in terror to the Peloponnesus. That 
narrow isthmus the Spartans, indifferent about the fate of 



480.] LEONIDAS AND THEMISTOCLES. 31 

Athens, were fortifying by means of a strong, transverse 
wall. 

Threatened with inevitable destruction, the Athenians in the 
extremity of their danger consulted the oracle at Delphi for 
advice, and received the dark reply that "the divine Salamis 
would make women childless," and that " they must trust in 
walls of wood." 

In the midst of universal despair, Themistocles arose and 
saved the people. The walls of wood, he said, were the ships 
which the gods had destined to be their salvation ; they must 
leave the city, and go on board those ships. Many of the 
Athenians took his advice, hopefull}" abandoned their homes, 
and removed their families to Troezen, ^gina, and Salamis. 
Those able for war joined Themistocles, and the whole Grecian 
fleet, commanded by Eurybiades, the Spartan, and numbering 
365 ships, assembled at Salamis. Soon after their departure 
Xerxes arrived, ravaged the country, and after pillaging 
the city, set it on fire. The hapless Athenians saw from 
Salamis the smoke and the flames in which perished their 
loved homes and all, besides their lives, they prized most on 
earth. 

About the same time, the Persian fleet arrived off Phalerum, 
and the vast armament which filled the waters as far as they 
could see also filled the breasts of the Greeks with fear. The 
allies of the Athenians were disheartened, and meditated 
abandoning them to their fate. The Peloponnesians were for 
sailing to the isthmus and helping to defend it, arguing 
that, after the fall of Athens, the loss of Attica was inevita- 
ble. In this terrible crisis Themistocles devised a desperate 
remedy. 

He sent Sicinnus, a trusted slave, on a secret mission to 
Xerxes, and charged him to say: "Great king, I am your 
friend, and long to enter your service. The Greeks meditate 
escaping from this bay this very night. Enclose them, and 
their fleet is yours." Xerxes took the hint, and during the 



32 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

night his fleet drew round the Greeks and cut off every outlet. 
Discovering that retreat was impossible, the Greeks were com- 
pelled to fight in the naval engagement which followed, and is 
famed in history as the battle of Salamis. 

The Persians were most unfortunate. Unacquainted with 
the dangers of that rock-bound coast, many of their vessels 
had run upon the cliffs in the darkness of night ; they had no 
sea-room for the proper disposition of their too numerous 
craft ; their ships, moreover, were clumsy, and so difficult to 
handle that when one of their number was pushed back by the 
Greeks, it threw all those in the rear into confusion ; the Per- 
sians, moreover, were suffering from lack of concert. In all 
these respects the Greeks were superior ; they had plenty of 
sea-room in a bay where they knew everj^ inch of water ; 
they acted in concert, and the movements of their fleet 
triremes were directed by able commanders. They behaved 
splendidl}^, and soon the bay was covered with the bodies 
of the slain floating amidst the broken oars, the splintered 
masts, and the demolished hulks of the Persian armament, 
to which the wounded were clinging with the energy of 
despair. The Asiatic Greeks jdeserted to their brethren ; the 
whole Persian armament was routed, and sought safety in 
flight. 

This humiliating spectacle, enacted under the eyes of Xerxes, 
who sat on a lofty throne, erected for the purpose at a point 
commanding the bay, filled that monarch with wrath and vexa- 
tion. Passing from overweening confidence to unreasonable 
suspicion and fear, he hastened his return march with un- 
seemly speed, and never rested until he had recrossed the 
Hellespont ; not over the bridge, for the storms had swept 
it away, but, as some say, in the lowly skiff of a Thracian 
fisherman. 

Themistocles doubtless had saved, in the victory of Salamis, 
his country from the yoke of the Persians. Though the jeal- 
ousy of the commanders deprived him of the honors due to his 



514-449.] LEONIDAS AND THEMISTOCLES. 3^ 

merit, his name was praised throughout Greece, and the Spar- 
tans, whom he visited, led him in triumph into their city, 
crowned him with an olive wreath, gave him the finest chariot 
which Sparta could produce, and an escort of the three hundred 
knights who accompanied him as far as Tegea. 

After the battle of Salamis, Themistocles was unremitting in 
his efforts for raising Athens to the supremacy of Greece. To 
him belongs the merit of building the magnificent fortifications 
of the port of Piraeus and the restoration of the walls of 
Athens. The Spartans, doubtless from motives of jealousy, 
were bitterly opposed to these fortifications so necessary to 
the protection and safety of Athens. Themistocles contrived 
to accomplish his purpose by diplomac}', amused the Spartans 
with curious stories until the walls were built, and then told 
them that Athens could now protect herself. 

But Themistocles could not escape the jealousy and enmity 
of his fellow-citizens, who were notorious for their ingratitude. 
He was charged with complicity in the treacherous correspond- 
ence conducted by Pausanias with the king of Persia, p 
and condemned to temporary banishment. 

After spending about five years at Argos, the discovery of 
the correspondence of Pausanias at Sparta and the formal 
charge of treason preferred against him by the Lacedaemonians 
made his stay at Argos precarious, and induced him to effect 
his escape first to Corcyra, then to Admetus, king of the 
Molossians, and lastly to Artaxerxes, the son and successor 
of Xerxes, who allowed him not only to live unmolested in his 
dominions, but was so captivated b}^ his dazzling schemes for 
the subjugation of Greece, that he made handsome ^^^^ 514 
provision for him at Magnesia, on the Maeander, died 449 
where he died. 

The Magnesians erected a very handsome monument to him 
in the Agora of their citj^, which remained to the time of 
Plutarch, more than five centuries after the death of Themis- 
tocles. He also stated that one of his descendants, with whom 



34 



ANCIENT HISTORY. 



[B.C. 



he was personall}" acquainted, continued to enjoy certain privi- 
leges and honors which Artaxerxes had conferred upon his 
ancestors. This proves how highly his services had been 
regarded by the Persians. 

It is said that at his own request, the remains of Themistocles 
were removed to Attica, and that the Athenians honored him 
with a tomb in the Piraeus, supposed to have borne this inscrip- 
tion : — 

"By the sea's margin, on the watery strand, 
Thy monument, Themistocles, shall stand : 
By this directed to thy native shore 
The merchant shall convey his freighted store ; 
And when our fleets are summoned to the fight, 
Athens shall conquer with thy tomb in sight." 

Whatever may be thought of the character of Themistocles, 
it is impossible not to admire his foresight, contrivance, and 
decision, and not to deplore the fact that honesty did not 
distinguish him. Had he been honest and true, an inglorious 
exile and the stigma of treason would not have stained his 
patriotism. 



REF 



NCES. 



Grote, "History of Greece," vol. II. pp. 272-314, 365-394; Smith, 
"History of Greece," pp. 185-215, 239-250; Smith, "Dictionary," 
etc., under "Leonidas " and " Themistocles." 




469-429.] PERICLES. 35 



PERICLES. 

Enriched beyond all other cities of Greece hy the victories 

achieved over Persia, Athens attained the zenith of r 

469—429 
her glory during the long reign of Pericles, one of the 

most illustrious of her children. Her pre-eminence in wealth, 

military and naval power, in education, culture, science, and 

art, was chiefly due to his wise and able administration. 

From the unusual size of his head he had obtained the mag- 
nificent nickname Kephalege fetes, signifying an assemblage of 
heads, and importing that his brain power was greater than 
that of any of his contemporaries. He also bore the nick- 
name Olympius, on account of his eloquence, which when he 
harangued the people seemed to affect them as if the deity 
were thundering and lightning on Mount Olympus. 

After the destruction of Athens by the Persians, Pericles 
caused it to be rebuilt with such superb magnificence that the 
fame of its splendor was known throughout the world. The 
private dwellings of the Athenians were plain, and inferior to 
our own, for the republican simplicity or jealousy, as well as 
the public life of the Athenians, combined to make their domes- 
tic architecture plain, but that of their public edifices grand 
and magnificent. The beauty and dazzling splendor of the 
temples, theatres, gymnasia, and other public buildings of 
Athens, have never been eclipsed and rarely equalled. The 
ruins of Athens continue to excite the admiration of all be- 
holders, and to furnish the best school to the architects and 
artists of the civilized world. 

The Acropolis, or fortress, occupied the most commanding- 
site of Athens, and in it, on it, and around it, centered the 



36 ANCIENT HISTORY, [B.C. 

most famous public buildings and monuments. The Acropolis 
crowned a steep and lofty hill in the northern part of Athens. 
A noble marble stairwa}" of grand dimensions connected the 
fortress with the city. The view from that height was, and 
yet is, exceedingly beautiful. Beyond the vast city, with its 
countless temples, altars, and monuments, stretched the famous 
walls which united it with the three sea-ports, where noble 
ships were coming and going, and large fleets were wont to ride 
at anchor ; then arose the beautiful sea whose dark blue waters 
reflect the deep azure of the sunny sky, with the island of 
Salamis in the foreground, and the mountains of Peloponnesus 
in the background. 

Turning round towards the Acropolis, the superb marble 
gateway, known as the Propylsea, and considered with the 
Parthenon, as the architectural glory of the age of Pericles, 
compelled the admiration of the visitor. This gateway, with 
its splendid columns and five gates, the central gate larger than 
the rest, and ample for the use of chariots and horsemen, was 
flanked by two wings, the one a temple consecrated to the god- 
dess of Victory, the other a picture-gallery, adorned with 
the paintings of the most farnous artists, had been erected 
by the architect, Mnesicles," in five years, and cost about 
$2,300,000. 

The Propylsea conducted the visitor into the Acropolis, 
which covered an area of 1,000 feet from east to west, and 
about 500 feet from north to south, and was enclosed with a 
massive wall of solid masonry. The most commanding object 
of the Acropolis was the colossal bronze figure of Athena 
Fromachus, or Pallas Athena, the former name describing the 
treatment of the subject, namely Athena fighting, or repre- 
sented in the very attitude of battle, and the latter. name des- 
ignating the character of the goddess, as the protectress, or tute- 
lary deity, of Athens. It was one of the masterpieces of 
Phidias, of colossal proportions, about 70 feet high ; the point 
of its spear and the crest of its helmet flashed the rays of the 



469-429.] PERICLES. 37 

sun, and was the most conspicuous landmark of Athens, visi- 
ble from Sunium, more than twenty miles awa}'. This superb 
statue was still standing a.d. 395, and is said to have fright- 
ened away Alaric, when he came to sack the Acropolis. 

But the crowning glory of the Acropolis was the Partheyion, 
or the Temple of Athena, the Virgin, which stood on the lofti- 
est spot of the rock, and rose to the height of about 70 feet. The 
architects of that wonderful structure were Callicrates and Icti- 
nus, who worked under the general direction of Phidias. It 
was built entirely of Pentelic marble, and constituted a mag- 
nificent hall, enclosed within 40 columns, replete with the 
most exquisite sculptures and other works of art. Of these 
the colossal statue of Athena, 40 feet high, made by Phi- 
dias, represented the goddess standing, clothed with a tunic 
reaching to the ankles, with a spear in her left hand, and an 
image of Victory in her right, a helmet on her head, and a 
shield resting on the ground by her side. It was made of 
ivory and gold, the former material being used for the face, 
hands, and feet, and the latter for the drapery and orna- 
ments. 

The general direction of the works of architecture, sculp- 
ture, etc., executed under Pericles, was left with Phidias, who 
besides the artists already mentioned by name, had drawn to 
Athens the most famous masters of the period. Among the 
most celebrated painters were Zeuxis and Parrhasius, renowned 
for their wonderfully accurate imitation of nature. In a con- 
test for superior skill the former painted a bunch of grapes so 
naturally that the birds flew at the picture to eat the fruit, while 
the latter had brought his picture covered, as it seemed, with a 
curtain. Zeuxis, elated with his success, impatiently called 
out to Parrhasius to remove the curtain, and show what he had 
done. The latter laughed, and behold! his picture was — the 
curtain itself. Zeuxis then yielded the palm to Parrhasius, 
saying, "I have deceived only birds, but Parrhasius has de- 
ceived me." 



38 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Athens contained also numerous schools, which in many 
respects were different from ours. The Athenian youth were 
taught grammar, music, and gymnastics. In their gymnasia 
provision was made for instruction in playing at ball, pulling at 
a rope, using the top, throwing five stones, etc. ; these, of 
course, were gymnastic sports ; the severer exercises consisted 
in running, throwing the disc, etc., jumping, leaping, wrestling, 
boxing, and even dancing was taught. 

These gymnasia, as well as baths, and similar institutions, 
were frequented, under proper regulations, by all classes and 
ages of the people, and were extremely beneficial in the proper 
training of the mind as well as of the body. One of the most 
popular resorts of Athens was the Agora, or the Market-place, 
where commodities of every description were offered for sale, 
where the judges were wont to dispense justice, where the 
learned would carry on discussions, and where the people 
would often assemble to deliberate on laws and public meas- 
ures. At the time of which we are treating, the Agora was an 
exceedingl}^ beautiful place of resort, filled with buildings, 
temples, sanctuaries, altars, and monuments ; among the trees 
were beautiful statues, and the famous porticoes, or cloisters, 
were decorated with paintings. 

All these tokens of wealth and culture, which might easily be 
enlarged by facts connected with the commerce, centred in the 
ever-populous ports of Athens, were mainly due to the wise 
and beneficent administration of Pericles. His power over the 
people was astonishing. On one occasion he pronounced the 
funeral oration for those who had fallen in battle. Their sur- 
viving friends, in many instances the parents of the dead, were 
present ; and at the conclusion of his oration, the mothers, 
grateful for the words of consolation so eloquently and touch- 
ingly uttered, rushed up to him, presenting garlands moistened 
with their tears in token of their gratitude. 

Yet gratitude was not the leading trait of Athenian char- 
acter. The Athenians were proverbially fickle, and wanting in 



431-404.] PERICLES. 39 

gratitude to their greatest benefactors. Thus it fared with 

Pericles. 

During the Peloponnesian war, waged by the Athenians with 

Sparta, the Spartans had invaded and wasted Attica, r 

431—404 
Unfortunately the hardships and terrors of the war 

were immeasurably aggravated by the horrors of a most destruc- 
tive epidemic, called the plague. It raged with unprecedented 
fury in the populous city for three years, and embittered the 
feelings of the stricken people against Pericles, whom they 
unjustly charged with having caused the war and all their mis- 
fortunes. Enemies were busy in stirring up hatred against 
him, and the people not only deprived him of his position of 
commander-in-chief, but fined him in a large sum of mone3\ 
The triumph of his enemies, however, was short-lived, for the 
incapacity of his successors speedily opened the ej^es of the 
people ; and he was restored to his honors with as much power 
and influence as he had ever wielded before. 

But clouds of domestic misfortunes obscured the autumn of 
his life. The plague had smitten not only many of his friends, 
but claimed for its victims his sister and his two sons. At the 
funeral of Paralus, his favorite son, when it was his duty to 
place a wreath on his body, he broke down with uncontrollable 
grief and, for the first time in his life, wept aloud. Soon after 
he was seized by a slow fever, which sapped his strength of 
body and mind. As he lay seemingly unconscious, his friends 
spoke of all he had done, and dwelt upon the nine trophies he 
had erected at diff'erent times for so many victories. He heard 
what they said, and exclaimed to their amazement : " What 3'ou 
praise in my life belongs partly to good fortune, and is at least 
common to me with many other generals. But that which I 
esteem most you have failed to mention ; I mean, that no 
Athenian ever put on mourning through any act of mine." 

Thus died the most noble and most gifted son of p 
Athens, the virtuous, wise, and patriotic Pericles. 

How Pericles spoke may be learned from the following 



40 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

extract of a speech which is said to have electrified his 
hearers : — 

" Be not aagry with me, whose advice ye followed in going 
to war, because the enem}' have done such damage as might be 
expected from them ; still less, on account of this unforeseen 
distemper: I know that this makes me an object of your 
special present hatred, though very unjustly, unless you will 
consent to give me credit also for any unexpected good luck 
which may occur. Our city derives its peculiar glory from 
unshaken bearing up against misfortune : her power, her name, 
her empire of Greeks over Greeks, are such as have never 
before been seen : and if we choose to be great, we must take 
the consequence of that temporary envy and hatred which is 
the necessary price of permanent renown. Behave now worthy 
of that glory : show that courage essential to protect you 
against present disgrace, and to ensure your honor hereafter. 
Send no further embassy to Sparta, and bear your misfortunes 
without any symptoms of distress." 

REFERENCES. 

Grote, "History of Greece,'^ vol. II. pp. 435-552; Smith, "History 
of Greece," pp. 265-291 ; Thirlwall, " History of Greece," vol. III. 
ch. 17-20; Plutarch's "Pericles"; and Smith, "Dictionary," etc., 
under " Pericles." 



470-399.] ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 41 



ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 

These two celebrated men were contemporaries, and lived at 
Athens during the Peloponnesian war. 

Alcibiades was born in that city, about B.C. 450 ; left an 
orphan, he was brought up in the house of Pericles, to about 
whom he was related. His personal beauty, wealth, 453-450 
and bright intellect made him a conspicuous person even in early 
youth. As a boy, he gained notoriety for imperious passion and 
wanton insolence. Vain, ambitious, and spoiled by flatterers, 
his wild freaks were the town talk. Wrestling with another 
bo3', he was on the point of being thrown, when, by way of 
defence, he bit the hand of his antagonist, and got free. The 
bitten lad exclaimed, "Alcibiades, you bite like a woman!" 
" Not at all," he replied, " I bite like a lion." 

On another occasion, he and some boys were playing at dice 
in the street, and just when his turn to throw had come, a 
loaded wagon was approaching. " Stop a little," he cried out 
to the driver, who took no notice of his request, and drove on. 
The other boys went aside, but he threw himself on the road 
before the horses, and bade the driver move on. The driver 
stopped the horses ; Alcibiades took his throw, and then turned 
aside. 

Though a good scholar in learning, he had the knack of 
getting into scrapes. Playing the flute was then a fashionable 
accomplishment at Athens ; but Alcibiades refused to acquire 
it, and branded the instrument as mean and unbecoming a 
gentleman ; besides, he would say, playing the flute distorts the 
face, and prevents the performer from singing and speaking. 
" Let the Theban youth therefore pipe, for they know not how 



42 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

to speak ; but we Athenians, as our fathers have told us, have 
Minerva for our patroness, and Apollo for our protector, one 
of whom threw away the flute ; and the other flayed the man 
who played it." 

His conduct as a young man was execrable. One day he laid 
a wager, that he would in the public street box the ear of one 
of the most distinguished citizens, not because he bore him a 
grudge for anything, but from sheer and wanton insolence. 
And he committed the outrage to the intense indignation of the 
whole city. On the next morning, Alcibiades called upon the 
gentleman, apologized, bared his shoulder, and bade him punish 
him for his insolence. He generously forbore to take revenge, 
accepted his apology, and actually gave him his daughter to wife. 

Similar was his conduct in the house of Anytus, who had 
invited him to an entertainment, which he had not accepted. 
On the daj' of the part}', he i3roposed to some boon companions, 
assembled at his own house, to repair to Anytus to have some 
fun. Stationing himself at the door of the banquet-chamber, 
he bade his servants seize half of the gold and silver cups 
which graced the table, and remove them to his own house. 
Then he left. The company wanted to resent the affront ; but 
Anytus good-naturedly remarked that he might have done worse, 
for he had left at least half standing, whereas he might have 
taken them all. 

Alcibiades had a dog of uncommon size and beauty, which 
cost him 70 minse (about $1,422) ; his chief ornament was his 
tail, and that he had cut off. When told that everybod}' 
blamed this freak of his, he laughed and said, "That is just 
what I want them to do ; for if they had not this to talk about, 
they would find something worse to say of me." 

His love for notoriety appears to have known no bounds. 
Passing the market-place, one da}'-, he witnessed the distribu- 
tion of a donative among the people. Instantly he sent for 
mone}^ of his own, and distributed it as he went along. This 
of course augmented the confusion and scramble, which so 



470-399.] ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 43 

greatly delighted him that he forgot that he was carr3dng a 
quail under his cloak ; the bird took fright and flew away ; he 
offered a great reward for its recovery, and then all the people 
ran after the bird. 

Being very liberal, affable, and " a jolly fellow," he was, his 
freaks notwithstanding, a general favorite, and people took 
from him what they would have resented in any one else. He 
was very extravagant and excessively vain. He wore purple 
and carried a shield of ivory and gold. His chariots and 
horses were the finest in Athens. 

Eager for power and pre-eminence, Alcibiades took pains to 
acquire eloquence, which at Athens was indispensable to 
success. He had a lisp, which became him, and found 
imitators. He frequented the society of philosophers, and 
especiall}- that of Socrates, for whom he cherished a very high 
regard. The lessons of that wise teacher, though admired, 
never produced any serious effect on Alcibiades, and ultimately 
became even distasteful to him. 

Socrates, born B.C. 470, had learned from his father Sophro- 
niscus the art of sculpture, and acquired great proficiency, but 
that art, though noble, fell short of his aims, which were higher 
and more sublime. To chisel statues in marble and ivory 
appeared to him incomparably beneath the culture and forma- 
tion of virtue, in the hearts and souls of men, and to that 
lofty pursuit he consecrated his extraordinary powers. He 
studied the writings of the ancients, and attended the lectures 
and instructions of the most eminent teachers. His leading- 
idea was the practice of wisdom. To know the truth and dis- 
course of it, was good, but to exemplify it in life, and enforce 
it by good example, was better. Every man, he taught, must 
learn to examine himself, and know himself, before he can 
make any progress in virtue. The mind, he would say, must 
govern the senses, not the senses and earthl}- possessions the 
mind. The man who had the least wants, he taught, resembled 
the godhead most. 



44 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Temperance, or moderation, was to him the foundation of 
virtue. Frugality and simpUcity marked the man throughout 
his life. He was wont to limit his food to what was needed to 
sustain life. Fond of healthful exercise, the sauce of hunger 
made every dish palatable to him. At the tables of his friends 
he would never exceed the limits of moderation in eating or 
drinking. 

By long and persistent training he had made himself indiffer- 
ent to heat and cold ; he wore the same homely, scant clothing 
in summer and winter, and almost always went barefooted. 
Yet he was not by any means slovenly in his appearance. An 
anecdote is told of one of his disciples, who, desirous of excel- 
ling Socrates in the poverty of his appearance, affected to wear 
a torn cloak, to whom he said, "Friend, friend, your vanity 
peeps through the holes of 3'our cloak." 

Socrates was naturally irritable, but had learnt not only to 
control that defect, but to excel in calmness, patience, and 
forbearance. A man in his anger once struck him in the face. 
Smiling at the angry impropriety, the philosopher exclaimed, 
" It is a pity that we cannot provide for occasions when it is 
useful to wear a helmet !i' ,/ Informed that some one had 
slandered him, he said, " Let him cudgel me as much as he 
likes, if I am not present." 

But Xanthippe, his wife, tried his patience by her ill- temper 
and scolding. One day she had given him a piece of her mind 
with more than usual vehemence ; the calm serenity and meek 
endurance of Socrates provoked a still more violent outburst of 
abuse, upon which he quietly rose and left the house. Xan- 
thippe, exasperated to the highest degree, seized a kettle with 
water, opened the window, and dashed the contents on her 
husband, who looked up, and said, smiling, "I expected some 
rain after such a thunder-storm." 

In conversation Socrates always displayed kindness and 
great geniality. He loved to interest his hearers by pleasing 
stories and illustrations, and understood how to prepare them 



470-399.] ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 45 

for the lofty truths he taught, and to inspire them with the fear 
of God. 

He was a very brave man and distinguished himself for 
courage in battle. In the siege of Potidsea he saved the life of 
Alcibiades, and in the battle of Delium the latter was able 
to save the life of Socrates. Filled with the fear of God, he 
was free from the fear of man, and believed, as well as taught, 
that all our doings, yea, even all that we think and speak, are 
known to the gods. 

Socrates did not teach in a school or any place in particular. 
Early in the morning he frequented the public walks, the gym- 
nasia, and the schools. At a later hour, he went to the market- 
place, when it was most crowded, and began to converse with 
any one, young or old, rich or poor ; he neither asked nor 
received rewards ; he made no distinction of persons, and 
treated of the same general topics to all. Politicians, philoso- 
phers, soldiers, artisans, young people, in short, whomever he 
met, he drew into conversation. Catching men, he said, was 
his mission. He would ask such questions as : What is piety? 
What is honorable? What is temperance? What is courage 
or cowardice ? What is a city ? Who is the best citizen ? and 
the like. Such a question, of course, drew forth an answer ; 
the answer led to further questioning, and in that way by 
questions and answers he taught his hearers, until thej^ were 
compelled to admit the absurdity of some of their notions and 
the superiority of his teaching. 

When Alcibiades, as a young man, told Socrates that he 
was afraid to appear as a public speaker, he asked him, 
"Are you afraid to speak before a cobbler?" " Not at all." 
''Would you mind speaking before a copper-smith?" "Oh, 
no ! " " But could you muster courage to brave a merchant? " 
"Why, yes." "Well, then, of just such persons is made up 
the whole of the people of Athens. You are not afraid of 
any one of their number, why should you be afraid of them 
together ? " 



46 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

The attachment of his disciples or followers was extraordi- 
nary, and honorable to the teacher and the taught. They pre- 
ferred his company to that of every one else, and his conversa- 
tion to recreation and diversion. Antisthenes was wont to 
walk five miles a day from his country home to be with Soc- 
rates, and Euclid did not mind often to come all the wa}^ from 
Megara, about twenty miles distant, in order to spend a day 
with him. When hostilities broke out between Athens and 
Megara, the inhabitants of the latter city were forbidden on 
pain of death to visit Athens. Yet such was the affection 
which linked Euclid to Socrates, that, disguised as a woman 
and in peril of life, he would slip through the gate of an 
evening in order to frequent the company of the beloved master. 

^schines, who was very poor, longed to become a disciple 
of Socrates, but was too diffident to approach him. Socrates, 
divining his purpose, accosted him, asking, "Why are you 
afraid of me?" "Because I have nothing to give you." 
"What!" said Socrates, "have you so low an estimate of 
yourself? Do you not give me anything when you give 
yourself to me?" This ^schines became one of ^ the most de- 
voted of his disciples, and a historian records a saying of Socrates 
importing that he only knew how to honor him. The abject 
poverty of iEschines is said to have occasioned the advice of 
Socrates, " to borrow money of himself by lessening his daily 
wants." This advice may be beneficial to all who read this 
anecdote. 

The story of his securing the handsome Xenophon as a 
disciple depicts in a striking manner the originality of Soc- 
rates. Meeting Xenophon in a passage-way, he raised his 
cane before him, saying, "Pray tell me where flour is sold." 
" In the market." "And where do they sell oil?" " In the 
same place." "But whither must you go in order to grow 
wise and good?" The young man looked embarrassed and 
kept silent. "Follow me," said Socrates, "and I will tell 
you." This was the beginning of their friendship. 



453-450.] ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 47 

The number of the disciples of Socrates was very large, and 
his fame for wisdom drew them from other Grecian cities, from 
Megara, Thebes, Elis, Cyrene, and others. One of his friends, 
called Chserephon, actually went to Delphi and asked the ora- 
cle, whether any other man was wiser than Socrates ; the 
priestess replied that no other man was wiser. When the 
reply was told Socrates, he was greatly perplexed, for he was 
so modest that he would only allow thus much : " that he knew 
that he knew nothing." One day, after long thought upon the 
declaration of the oracle, he tried to -test its truthfulness by 
questioning a politician famed for wisdom on sundry matters, 
and received answers which satisfied him that his reputed wis- 
dom was really no wisdom at all. He then attempted to make 
the politician admit his want of wisdom. But in that he failed 
entirely, for the politician remained as firmly persuaded of his 
own wisdom as before. " Then," said Socrates, " I knew that 
I was wiser than he ; for though neither he nor I knew anything 
of what was truly good and honorable, there was this difference 
between us : he fancied he knew, and I fully knew that I knew 
nothing, and herein I was wiser than he." 

The events connected with the public life of Alcibiades must 
have caused great sorrow to Socrates. The former was the 
chief promoter of the Sicilian expedition. On the eve of its 
departure, Athens was indignant and horrified at the sacrile- 
gious mutilation of all the numerous statues of the god Hermes 
which abounded in the city. Suspicion pointed its finger at 
Alcibiades and his companions. He denied the charge and 
demanded an investigation, but his enemies urged that he 
should sail with the expedition and stand his trial later. 
During his absence agitation against him was kept up and led 
to his recall. But instead of returning to Athens, he effected 
his escape and went to Sparta, where, informeiT that the Athe- 
nians had condemned him to death, he exclaimed, " I shall 
show them that I am alive ! " and kept his word. 

At Sparta he appeared as the open enemy of Athens, and 



48 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

conformed to Spartan usage. His duplicity and base looseness 
of conduct, however, were speedily discerned, and he was com- 
pelled to seek safety with Tissaphernes, the Persian satrap, in 
Asia Minor. He succeeded in enlisting the satrap's sympathy 
in favor of Athens, whereupon the Athenians revoked the sen- 
tence of death and appointed him general. The Athenian 
arms prevailed against Sparta, and one of their generals sent 
home this brief report: " Our good luck is gone ; Mindarus is 
slain ; the men are starving ; we know not what to do." 
Spartan proposals for peace were rejected at Athens. 

-n Aleibiades, now covered with glorj-, returned in tri- 
umph to Athens, wrongly believing that the past had 
been forgotten, and buried in love. His enemies remained, 
eager for an opportunity to humble him. That occurred not 
long after in the unsuccessful issue of the expedition against 
Andros, for which Aleibiades was held responsible, and dis- 
missed from his command. 

Deeming Athens an unsafe place of residence, he went to 
the Thracian Chersonese, and, with mercenaries of his own, 
made war on the neighboring tribes, by which means he en- 
riched himself, and afforded protection to the Grecian cities in 
the vicinity. "" 

-, Before the fatal battle of ^gos Potamus, or Goat's 
405 

Eiver, in which the Spartans defeated the Athenians, he 

was condemned to banishment, and sought refuge with Pharna- 
bazus, the Persian satrap. While there, either at the instiga- 
tion of Sparta, or more probably under directions given by 
Cj^rus, a party set out to seize the famous exile. Afraid to 
attack him, they set his house on fire during the night ; 
wrapped in his cloak, and with a sword in his right hand, he 
rushed through the flames upon his cowardly assailants, who, 
dreading to approach him, poured upon him showers of arrows 

1 until he died. 
404J 

This inglorious and sad fate overtook Aleibiades at 

the age of 50. Upon the whole he did more injury than 



408-404.] ALCIBIADES AND SOCRATES. 49 

service to his countiy. Endowed with all the elements of 
greatness, with talent, ambition, courage, presence of mind, and 
fertility in resource, they were absolutely marred by his vanity, 
arrogance, profligacy, and total want of principle. 

Socrates was still alive when this happened. His closing 
years were embittered by sorrow, which culminated in the 
charges preferred against him, that he did not worship the 
gods of his native city, and that his teaching corrupted the 
youth ; the penalty due to such crimes was death. 

Socrates appealed to his life, and to his ceaseless efforts for 
the promotion of the virtue and happiness of his fellow-citi- 
zens, and repelled the accusation in all points, avowing that he 
had always taught the worship of the gods, as enjoined by the 
state, and that the statements which his accusers put into his 
mouth were either forged or garbled. His defence was not 
relished by the judges, who had expected him to show contri- 
tion, and, like other criminals, to weep and implore their 
mercy and forgiveness. He was committed to prison. The 
rhetor Lysias brought him a set speech for his defence, but 
he declined to use it, not thinking it suitable to his dignity. 
^' Had you brought me a pair of soft and beautiful socks," he 
said, " I should not wear them, because I consider it unmanly 
so to do." 

At the next meeting of the court he was condemned by the 
small majority of five or six votes out of a total of about 560. 
He heard his condemnation with the utmost calmness, but his 
disciples interceded with the judges, and offered in vain to pay 
a large sum of money for his liberation. Socrates bade fare- 
well to his judges, and forgave those who had cast their votes 
against him. Taken back to prison, where he spent thirty days in 
daily intercourse with his friends, an opportunity provided for his 
escape he refused to embrace, on the ground that it was unlaw- 
ful. When one of his friends, in the bitterness of his grief, 
exclaimed, "Would that you did not die innocent!" Socrates 
replied, smiling, " Do you prefer that I should die guilty? " 



50 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

On the day of his death fifteen of his friends had come to 
see him, when the jailer announced that, according to law, he 
must drink the cup of hemlock before sunset. His wife, carry- 
ing their youngest child in her arms, came to bid him farewell. 
She wept sore, and Socrates bade his friends take her home. 
Then he spoke to them words of consolation, discoursed of 
death and life, and stated the grounds of his belief in the im- 
mortality of the soul. 

Near sunset the jailer came in carrjdng the cup. Socrates 
asked him for instructions how to take it, and after a brief 
prayer, put it to his mouth and emptied it. His friends broke out 
in lamentation, but he bade them desist. When the poison be- 
gan to act, he lay down ; his feet grew cold, and his limbs were 
stiffening. Silent and sorrowing his friends stood by watching 
him. Suddenly he opened his eyes, and said, dying : " Friends, 
I am well. Crito, we owe a thankoffering to ^sculapius ; for- 
get not to pay it." Then he died. 

-, One of his friends wrote : " Thus died the man who, 

OOQ I 

of all with whom we were acquainted, was in death the 
noblest, in life the wisest and most just." 

In life and doctrine Socrate^s was nearer the Christian ideal 
than any of his countrymen.^ 

REFERENCES. 

For Alcibiades : Grote, " History of Greece," vol. H. p. 768 to III. 
p. 382 ; Smith, " History of Greece," pp. 322-376 ; Smith, " Diction- 
ary," etc., mider "Alcibiades." 

For Socrates: Grote, "History of Greece," vol. III. pp. 429-484; 
Smith, "History of Greece," pp. 415-418; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., 
under "Socrates." 



20 



DOMINIONS OP ALEXAND] 




Longitude 




from Greenwich 



Fisk A Sea.X.Y. 



399-338.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 61 



ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 

Philip, the father of Alexander, was king of Macedonia, and 

an expert in the art of war. He perfected the phalanx, the 

name given to a military division drawn up in the form of a 

parallelogram. He raised it from 1,000 to 8,000 men, jiiassed 

into a compact body of infantry, presenting a line of 5(1) men 

abreast and 16 deep. The}' were heavily armed, and carried 

spears from 21 to 24 feet long, which the men in the first 5 lines 

held projected horizontally, while the men of the remaining 11 

lines carried them upwards, slanting them over the shoulders of 

those before them. The remainder of their armor consisted of 

a short sword, a circular shield, a breastplate, leggings, and a 

helmet. The Macedonian phalanx, properly drawn up, afforded 

extraordinary protection to every member of the body, and 

presented to the enemy an impenetrable forest of spears. By 

means of the phalanx Philip subdued the Illyrians, Thracians, 

and Thessalians, and in the battle of Chseronea van- r- 

338 
quished the Greeks, to whom he left the semblance of 

liberty, and contented himself with being chosen their com- 
mander-in-chief of the expedition against Persia. That enter- 
prise he did not live to carry into effect, but it was accomplished 
by Alexander, his son, who excelled him in generalship. 

Alexander received an education well suited to his abilities 
and expectations ; Leonidas, a kinsman of his mother, trained 
him to Spartan simplicity and hardihood ; Lysimachus, bokn 
another of his tutors, inspired him with ambition, and ^56 
caused him to cherish the traditions of the royal family — that 
they were descended from Achilles — by giving that name to his 
pupil. 



52 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Dreams of future greatness filled the mind of young Alexan- 
der, and he even envied his father the greatness of his fame. 
The announcement of his victories would cast him down, and 
made him exclaim, weeping, "My father, I fear, will conquer 
the whole world, and leave nothing for me to do ! " The 
Iliad of Homer was his favorite book and inseparable com- 
panion. 

One day a magnificent war-horse, called Bucephalus, was 
offered to Philip at an exorbitant price. The best grooms 
were unable to manage him, and the king had ordered him to 
be taken awa}^, when Alexander craved leave to try him. He 
ran to*ie horse, seized the bridle, and turned him to the sun, 
for he had noticed that he shied at his shadow ; he spoke kindly 
to him, stroked his neck, and gently dropping his cloak, vaulted 
lightly upon his back, and made him go at his pleasure, amid 
the loud acclamations of the spectators, and to the intense joy 
of his father. 

For three years Alexander had the benefit of the instructions 
of the great Aristotle, and at the early age of eighteen he dis- 
tinguished himself in the battle of Chseronea. At the age of 
twenty he ascended the throne ; but his accession was the 
signal of revolt on the part~^f the nations whom Philip had 
subdued. The Athenians scorned his youth and inexperience. 
Alexander, at the head of his army, marched into Greece, and 
at Thermopylae, a representative body, called the Amphictyonic 
Council, conferred upon him the command with which his father 
had been clothed. Then he hastened north and quelled, in a 
series of arduous campaigns, the revolt of the barbarian tribes. 

For some time no news of him was received, and gave color 
to the report of his death. The Greek cities sought to shake 
off the hated alliance with Macedon, and Thebes besieged the 
Macedonian garrison in the Cadmea. Suddenly Alexander with 
his victorious army stood at the gates and demanded submis- 
sion, which being refused, he carried the city by storm and 
caused it to be razed. 



334.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 53 

Intelligence of the fate of Thebes spread terror throughout 
Greece, and caused his authority to be generally recognized ; 
deputations from many quarters, announcing the submission of 
numerous cities, repaired to him at Corinth, where about this 
time took place his interview with the celebrated philosopher, 
Diogenes, who lived in a tub, and was contented with the 
coarsest necessaries. 

When everj^bOdy came to pay respects to Alexander, Diog- 
enes refused to go, but Alexander went to see him. He 
found him basking in the sun, and engaged him in conversa- 
tion. Before leaving, he asked him if he could show him a 
favor in anything. "Oh, yes," replied the philosopher, 
*' please stand out of my sunshine!" The appearance and 
reply of Diogenes excited universal laughter, but Alexander 
was differently impressed, and said, "If I were not Alexander, 
I would be Diogenes." 

The expedition against Persia, consisting of an army of about 
35,000 men, including 12,000 Macedonians, was undertaken in 
the spring. Alexander crossed the Hellespont, steering p 
the admiral's trireme with his own hand. He was the first 
to set foot on Asiatic soil, and hurling his spear against the 
land, caused it to enter the earth, exclaiming that the gods had 
given him Asia. He visited the battle-field of Tro}', placed 
garlands on the tombs of the ancient heroes, and remarked at 
the pillar of Achilles how he envied his fortune which had given 
him in life a faithful friend, and after death a great poet to 
celebrate his acts. 

Marching to the Granicus, a small river of north-western 
Asia Minor, Alexander found a Persian armj^ drawn up on the 
opposite bank to dispute his passage. Parmenio, a veteran 
general, advised him not to attempt it, but Alexander ruled that, 
having crossed the Hellespont, the paltry stream should not stop 
him. The Granicus was forded, and the Persians were routed 
in the battle which ensued ; Alexander, who was in the thickest of 
the fight, came very near losing his life. One Persian had given 



54 ANCIENT HISTORY. , [B.C. 

him a blow which split his helmet, and another, with uplifted 
arm and scimitar, was on the point of striking him, when his 
friend, Clitus, fortunately, with one tremendous blow, cut off 
the Persian's arm, and saved Alexander. 

-. This victory made him master of Asia Minor, which 
he rapidly subdued. On his march be came to Gordium, 
where he cut the celebrated Gordian Knot, which, according to 
tradition, was to be loosened only by the conqueror of Asia. 
At Tarsus, he imprudently plunged, still heated with the march, 
into the cold waters of the C3Tlnus, and contracted a fever, 
which threatened his life. His physicians despaired of his re- 
covery, but Philip, an Acarnanian physician, prescribed a 
remedy ; before taking it, a letter arrived, warning Alexander 
against Philip, as having been bribed by Darius to poison him ; 
Alexander put the letter under his pillow, took the medicine 
without remark, and handed the letter to Philip. In answer to 
the latter's indignant protestations of his innocence, he cried, 
' ' Hold your peace ; I believe that yoM are innocent, and the 
event will show it." He recovered to the delight of the whole 
army, which followed him on his march against Darius, who, 
impatient of delay, had committed the capital error of getting 
into Alexander's rear, in the~ niirrow plain of Issus, where his 
huge arm}^ of 600,000 fighting men, with its cumbersome 
train, was cooped up between Mount Amanus and the sea. 
The approach of the Macedonian phalanx filled the Persians 

-| with dismay, and in the battle which ensued they were 
defeated with terrible slaughter. Darin s, panic-stricken, 
fled in his chariot, and finding its progress impeded by the 
nature of the ground, mounted on horseback, leaving behind 
his bow, his shield, and his royal mantle. His mother, his 
wife, his two daughters, and a son under age, became the cap- 
tives of Alexander, and, by his orders, were treated with such 
respect that the report is said to have caused the unfortunate 
Darius to exclaim, "Preserve, O gods, my empire, that I may 
evince my gratitude, but, if j^ou have decreed its overthrow. 



334-331.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 55 

grant that it be ruled by none other than Alexander of Mace- 
don." 

On his victorious march southward, Tyre, the capital of 
Phoenicia refused to surrender. The city was situated on an 
islet, nearly half a mile from the mainland, and surrounded on 
all sides by high walls. Commencing the siege without a fleet, 
Alexander caused to be built a solid mole, 200 feet broad, 
reaching from the mainland to the islet. On the eve of its 
completion, the Tyrians, favored by a strong wind, by means 
of a fireship, and their entire naval strength, almost destroyed 
the mole. It was reconstructed and made much stronger; a 
powerful fleet of 200 sail was brought up, the harbors of the 
city were blockaded, a practical breach was made, and after a 
most obstinate and ingenious defence, sustained for seven months, 
the city was at last carried by storm, and fearfully punished. 
The slain are said to have numbered 8,000 ; the remainder, the 
king and those who had sought shelter in the temple of Hercu- 
les excepted, to the number of 30,000, were sold into slavery. 

The siege and capture of Gaza and an expedition into p 
Palestine were followed by the conquest of Egypt, whose 
inhabitants hailed Alexander as their deliverer from the hated 
yoke of the Persians. Sailing down the Nile, he founded at its 
mouth the city of Alexandria, and visited the celebrated oracle 
of Jupiter Ammon, in the Libyan desert, where the pliant 
priest greeted him as the son of Jupiter. 

In the following spring he led his army through Phoe- p 
nicia to the Euphrates, and learning that Darius at the 
head of an immense force was posted on the Tigris, he con- 
tinued his march until he met him at a place called Gauga- 
mela (the camel's house) , on a plain between the Tigris and the 
mountains of Kurdistan. A terrible battle, known as Oct., 
that of Arbela, was fought and decided the destiny of 331 
Asia. Darius fled, and Alexander stood acknowledged as the 
Great King. His progress now was a triumphal march, and he 
entered in succession Babylon, Susa, and Persepolis. The 



56 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

treasure that fell into his hands was immense, for it amounted 
to the almost fabulous sum of one hundred and fif t}^ millions of 
dollars. 

After a rest of four months, Alexander resumed the pursuit 
of Darius, who had fled first to Ecbatana, and then to the 
inaccessible regions beyond the Caspian Sea. At Rhagse, to 
which place he had pushed with such unexampled rapidity that 
many men and horses died of fatigue, he ordered a halt of 
five days. On that fearful march the army suffered from want 
of water. A horseman who had found some, filled his helmet 
and presented it to Alexander. He took the helmet, but re- 
fused to drink it, saying to the soldiers, " I cannot drink and 
see 3'ou athirst ! " and poured it on the ground. This act of 
self-denial and consideration stirred the enthusiasm of the 
soldiers, who exclaimed, "Lead thou us on; we are not hun- 
gry, nor thirsty, nor mortal, under the lead of a king like thee ! " 

He soon heard that Darius had been deposed, seized, and 
loaded with chains by a body of conspirators headed by Bessus, 
the satrap of Bactria. The news led Alexander to give chase 
to the conspirators. On the fourth day he drew near them ; they 
tried in vain to persuade Darius to fly with them, and unwill- 
ing, from fear of punishment, to let him fall alive into the 
hands of Alexander, wounded him mortally, and pursued their 
flight. A Macedonian soldier found him dying, refreshed him 
with a drink of water presented in his helmet, and received 
his last words : "It is my greatest misfortune that I cannot 
reward thee for thy kindness ; Alexander will reward thee. 
Through thee I extend my hand to him, believing that the 
gods will reward his generosity to my mother, my wife, and 
-| my children." Then he died, before Alexander came 
up, who, deeply moved, covered the body with his own 
cloak, and caused it to be buried with royal honors in the 
sepulchres of the Persian kings at Persepolis. 

-, Bessus escaped into Bactria, but ultimately fell into 
the hands of Alexander, and by his orders was first 
cruelty mutilated and then put to death. 



331-327.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT. 57 

The conquest of northern Persia and parts of central Asia, 
as far east as the Indus, and as far north as the province of 
Sogdiana, beyond the Oxus, to the river Jaxartes on the con- 
lines of Scythia, was accomplished in the course of the r 

331—327 
next four years. As a great Asiatic monarch, Alex- 
ander had deemed it prudent to adopt the manners of a Persian 
king, to wear the costume of the country, and to demand the 
deference usually accorded to oriental despots. He had also 
married the beautiful Roxana, a Bactrian princess, become 
haughty, cruel, and fond of flattery, and by these and other 
means estranged the hearts of his Macedonian warriors. 

At a banquet the mention of the heroes of ancient times led 
flatterers to represent their exploits inferior to Alexander's. 
Clitus, his friend, took exception to their statements, and 
boldly declared that those of Philip cast Alexander's in the 
shade. The king, as well as Clitus, was flushed with wine ; 
an altercation took place in which the former thrust a lance 
through the body of the friend who had saved his life on the 
Granicus. The bloody deed brought him to his senses, and he 
retired, filled with remorse, to his tent, where for three days he 
refused all food, but at last allowed himself to be consoled 
by the words of his friends and of the soothsayers, who as- 
scribed the death of Clitus to temporary insanity meted out 
to him by Dionysus as a punishment for neglecting the cele- 
bration of his festival. 

Alexander next crossed the Indus, entered the Penjab, and 
defeated the brave Porus, whose valiant bearing filled him 
with admiration. Brought before Alexander and asked b}^ him 
how he expected to be treated, the Indian king replied, " Like 
a king." "And have you no other request?" inquired Alex- 
ander. " No," answered Porus, " everything is comprehended 
in the word king." His expectations were more than fulfilled ; 
for Alexander not only restored to him his kingdom, but en- 

laro;ed his dominions. The engagement with Porus took r- 

f 327 
place on the banks of the Hydaspes, where Alexander 



58 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

founded two cities, one called Bucephala, in honor of his 
favorite war-horse, who died there ; the other called Nicsea, to 
commemorate his victorj-, which made him master of that part 
of India. 

The terror of his arms caused the tribes, as yet unsubdued 
by him, to cross the Hyphasis. Alexander would fain have 
followed them, but the Macedonians, worn out by long service 
and tired of war, refused to proceed. Tlie entreaties of Alex- 
ander were in vain ; he submitted with good grace, and after 
erecting on the banks of the river twelve colossal altars as the 
boundary signs of his conquests, gave the order for retreat, to 
the great jo}^ of his soldiers, who thanked him, saying that 
their prayer had vanquished the invincible victor. 

-| Then followed the exploration of the Indus, which 
Alexander at first considered to be a branch of the 
Nile, and was accomplished without serious difficulty. From 
the mouth of that river Nearchus was ordered to take the 
fleet along the Persian gulf, and rejoin Alexander at Carman, 
to which place he had led his army through the burning deserts 
of GedrOsia. 

-| The return to Susa, by way of Persepolis, terminates 
the military exploits of^Alexander, and introduces him 
resting at Babylon, without an enemy before him, engaged in 
the organization of his vast empire, and fostering the arts 
of peace. He took a second wife, Barsine, the eldest daughter 
of Darius ; about 80 of his generals married Asiatic wives, and 
10,000 Macedonians followed their example. 

Vast projects, military, commercial, and agricultural, en- 
gaged his thoughts ; but in the midst of them, partly in conse- 
quence of his great exertions, partly as the result of intem- 
perate indulgence, he was attacked by a malignant fever which 
assumed the most alarming forms, and made his recovery hope- 
less. The news of his malady spread through the arm}', and 
filled his warriors with grief and consternation ; they begged 
to see him once more, and were admitted unarmed ; in loving 



326-324.] ALEXANDER THE GREAT, 59 

and sorrowful devotion they passed by his bedside, where his 
generals had assembled. His last words, in answer to the 
question to whom he bequeathed his kingdom, were, " To the 
most worthy"; and one of his last acts, the removal of 
his signet ring from his fmger, and handing it to Perdiccas. 
He died after an illness of eleven days, after a reign of twelve 
3'ears and eight months, aged thirty-two years and eight 
months, in June, B.C. 323. 

Alexander was doubtless a great general and a great soldier. 
As a conqueror he chiefly benefited mankind by the spread of 
civilization, and the increase of knowledge, especially in geog- 
raphy and natural history. As a man, his motives were not 
lofty; pride, ambition, and vain glory were the springs of his 
action. Human life he esteemed of little value, and he often 
ruthlessly trampled under foot the rights of man. His conquests 
enriched Europe materially ; Asia, intellectually. His death was 
the signal of contention and war ; for not having appointed a 
successor, all his generals claimed shares in the inheritance of 
his vast dominions. Out of its ruins new kingdoms were formed, 
and ultimately absorbed in the great Roman empire. 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch's "Alexander" is less trustworthy than Arrian's "Ana- 
basis of Alexander," which, though compiled from earlier works, is 
the best account among ancient writers. 

The best English writers on the subject are : Williams, " Life of 
Alexander " ; Thirlwall, " History of Greece," vols. VI. and VII. ; 
Grote, " History of Greece," vol. IV. pp. 515-675. For shorter 
treatment, see Smith, " History of Greece," pp. 525-551 ; and Smith, 
" Dictionary," etc., under "Alexander III.," vol. I. pp. 119-122. 



60 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 



ROMULUS. 

In the low country of Latium, answering to the modern Cam- 
-| pagna, kiy the city of Alba Longa, or the Long White 
City, said to have been built by Ascanius, the son of 
^neas, and other Trojan exiles. 

As far back as the eighth century before Christ, two brothers, 
called Numitor and Amulius, inherited Alba Longa. Amulius, 
the younger, usurped the throne, which really belonged to Nu- 
mitor, who had two children, a son and a daughter ; the son he 
murdered, and the daughter, called Rhea Silvia, he made a 
Vestal ; that is, a priestess of Vesta, the goddess who presided 
over the hearth. Though forbidden to marry, she bore twin 
sons, Romulus and Remus, to Mars, the god of war. 

Alarmed at their birth, the wicked Amulius caused Silvia to 
be buried alive, and ordered the children to be drowned in the 
Tiber. It so happened that tlT^river had overflowed its banks, 
and the basket or cradle, in which the twins were exposed, was 
placed b}^ the servants in the shallow water ; when the water 
subsided, the basket was caught in the boughs of a fig-tree, 
where a she-wolf discovered and mercifully nursed them. The 
singular behavior of the four-footed nurse arrested the attention 
of Faustulus, a royal herdsman, and finding the children, he 
would not be outdone in compassion by the she-wolf, and carried 
them home to Acca Laurentia, his wife, who brought them up 
with her own children. 

As they grew up they became, like Faustulus, herdsmen, and 
built huts on the Palatine hill, where they pastured their herds. 
The herdsmen of Numitor were wont to pasture theirs on the 
Aventine hill, and quarrels between the rival herdsmen were of 



753.] ROMULUS. 61 

frequent occurrence. In one of these Remus was arrested, and 
taken before Numitor, who, struck with his noble bearing, in- 
quired into his origin. Faustulus, accompanied by Romulus, 
repaired to Numitor, and told him the truth. Greatly delighted 
at the discovery, he forthwith acknowledged them as his grand- 
children, and told them the wrong that had been done to them 
by Amulius. The young men, with the aid of their companions, 
overthrew the usurper and restored their grandfather to the 
throne of Alba, who, in gratitude for that the}^ had done, gave 
them leave to found a city in the very place where they had led 
the life of herdsmen. 

The original founding of the city was a very simple affair. 
Romulus took a plow, drawn by two oxen, and cut a furrow on 
the square around the Palatine hill. An embankment p 
of earth was thrown up, and within the enclosure were 
built a number of plain huts, with mud walls and thatched roofs. 
The brothers agreed to let augury, or the flight of birds, decide 
which of them should give his name to the city. Accordingly, 
Romulus and Remus took their positions on the opposing hills, 
to watch the heavens. Remus, from the Aventine, saw six 
vultures and told Romulus, who from the Palatine saw twelve. 
The shepherds decided, on account of the number of the birds, 
that Romulus should name the city. Remus, angry at his de- 
feat, leaped in scorn over his brother's walls, and provoked the 
wrath of Romulus, who slew him, exclaiming, " So die whoever 
hereafter shall leap over my walls." Romulus, being now sole 
ruler, called the city Rome, after his own name. 

In order to attract a population, Romulus made his city an 
asylum, and soon gathered many fugitives from justice, who, 
with the shepherds and Albanian immigrants, numbered 3,300 
fighting men. In token of his royalty he established a body- 
guard of 300 horsemen, called equites^ or knights. When he 
appeared in public, twelve officers, called lictors, a sort of execu- 
tive police, went before him. He also appointed a senate, 
chosen from the most distinguished of his subjects, to aid him 



62 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

in the government of the city ; they were called patres, or 
fathers, and their descendants, clothed with hereditary privi- 
leges, were known 2^^ patricians . The mass of the people were 
called plebeians. The new city was divided into three districts, 
called t7'ibus, and every tribus into ten curicE. There were, 
therefore, thirt^^ curim, and the citizens of the several curice 
were summoned to the market-place, or forum, to deliberate on 
public affairs. 

The new city was filled with men, but destitute of women. 
Romulus invited the neighboring people to contract marriages 
with his subjects ; but as these had not a good reputation, his 
proposals were declined. Then he proclaimed a festival in 
honor of Neptune, with popular games and sports, which at- 
tracted a large number of visitors, especially of Sabines and 
Latins, who had come with their wives and daughters. 

While the festivities were in progress, at a given signal, the 
Roman ^^ouths rushed upon their guests, each seized a maiden 
and carried her to his home. Their stricken and injured par- 
ents returned and prepared for vengeance. The Latins de- 
clared war against Rome, but were defeated ; Acron, one of 
their kings, was slain by Romulus. The Sabines also, com- 
manded by Titus Tatius, their king," marched against Rome in 
formidable strength, and compelled Romulus to retire into the 
city, which he had made much stronger by the erection of a 
fortress on the top of the Saturnine hill, afterwards called the 
Capitoline, which was divided by a swampy valley from the 
city. That fortress, or capitol, was commanded by Tarpeius, 
whose daughter Tarpeia, dazzled with the golden ornaments 
worn by the Sabine soldiers, promised to betray the hill to them, 
if they would give her the ornaments which they wore on their 
left arms. They consented, and were admitted by her at night ; 
but when she claimed her reward, they threw upon her the shields 
which they had carried on their left arms, and crushed her to 
death. At day, the Romans tried to recover the hill, and fought 
with the Sabines in the valley. For a long while the battle 



753-716.] ROMULUS. 63 

lasted, but at length seemed to favor the Sabines. In the 
midst of the struggle, the Sabine women rushed in between the 
combatants, and besought their fathers and brothers to be 
friends with their husbands. Their prayers were heard ; peace 
was concluded, and the two nations agreed to form one people, 
though each nation was governed by its own king. The Ro- 
mans, ruled by Romulus, dwelt on the Palatine, and the Sabines, 
ruled by Titus Tatius, on the Capitoline and Quirinal hills, 
where they built a new city. The two kings and their senates 
were wont to meet for consultation in the valley between those 
hills, and called the place comitium, that is, the place of meet- 
ing. 

The rule of the two kings did not last long, and upon the 
violent death of Tatius, Romulus reigned alone for thirty years. 
Under his long and prosperous rule Rome grew apace, respected 
and feared b}^ her neighbors. It is difficult to get at the truth 
of his death ; some say that it was violent, but the legend runs 
that one day, on the fifth of August, while he was reviewing 
his army on the plain of Mars, the sun was suddenly eclipsed, 
darkness covered the earth, and a storm dispersed the people. 
When the storm was over, Romulus had disappeared, for his 
father. Mars, had taken him in a fiery chariot to heaven. That 
same night he appeared to Proculus Julius, and bade him tell 
his mourning people that the}^ should become the lords of the 
world, and that he would watch over them as their guardian 
god. Then he ascended to heaven, and the people thenceforth 
worshipped him under the name of Quirinus, and appointed in 
his honor a festival, called the Quirinalia, which was held on 
the seventeenth of February. 

REFERENCES. 

The best modern accomit of Romulus is probably that of Niebuhr, 
"History of Rome," vol. I. A good sketch is found in Smith, "Dic- 
tionary," etc., under " Romulus." See also Plutarch, " Romulus." 



64 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 



TARQUINIUS THE PROUD. 

Tarquinius Supekbus, or the Proud, usarpecl the throne of 
Rome after he had, by the hand of assassins, murdered Servius 
_ -| TuUius, his iDredecessor. His rule was marked by 
cruelty and tyranny. Utterly selfish, he trampled 
under foot the rights of the senate, and of the people, and thus 
made the Eomans loathe the kingly office. One of his first acts 
was to abolish the privileges enjoyed by the people, and to rid 
himself of such senators and patricians as stood in the way of his 
exactions and oppressions. All whom he mistrusted, or whose 
wealth he coveted, were put to death, or driven into exile. 
The poor he compelled to work at miserable wages upon his 
magnificent buildings and the public works ; and the hardships 
they suffered were so great that many preferred death to life. 
He surrounded himself with a strong body-guard of hired for- 
eigners, by means of whichrhe was enabled to do as he 
pleased. 

He did not even spare his own family and relatives. One of 
his sisters had married M. Brutus, a very wealthy man who 
died and left two sons. Tarquinius, coveting their property, 
killed the elder son ; and the younger, Junius, escaped the 
same fate only by feigning idiocy. The tyrant accordingly 
deemed him harmless, and nicknamed him Brutus, that is, the 
fool. But this was a great mistake. 

One day an unsightly old woman appeared before the king, 
and offered to sell him nine rolls or books, which she carried in 
her arms, for three hundred pieces of gold. The books were 
said to contain the predictions of a famous prophetess, known 
as the SibyL The king refused her offer with scorn, The 



534-509.] TARQUINIUS THE PROUD. 65 

woman went away, burnt three of the books, and returned, 
demanding the same price for the six. Again the king refused ; 
she left, burnt three more, and returned with the remaining 
three, saying, "King, will you buy the last three books and 
pay the price I asked for the nine ? " Struck b}' the strange 
request, the king consulted the soothsaj^ers, who recommended 
him to buy the books at any price. So the woman got her 
price for the books, which were the famous Sibylline books. 

By order of Tarquinius they were deposited in the vaults of 
the Capitol. In later times they were consulted on important 
occasions, such as wars and public calamities ; it is thought 
that they were written in Greek characters on palm-leaves, and 
that they were consulted by lot; the leaves were shuffled, and 
the verses written on the one drawn applied to the case in 
hand. 

Tarquinius, who was very superstitious, one day was much 
troubled by a strange occurrence. A snake crawled out from 
the altar in the royal palace, put out the lire, and seized the 
entrails of the victim that lay upon it. The king sent Titus and 
Aruns, his sons, accompanied b}^ Junius Brutus, to consult the 
oracle at Delphi. The royal princes carried rich presents to 
the priestess, but Brutus only a stick of cornel wood which he 
had hollowed, and, it would seem as betokening his own hidden 
talents, filled up the hollow with a rod of gold. This offering 
was grateful to the priestess, who, in answer to their question, 
who was to reign at Rome after their father, told the princes, 
"He who first kisses his mother." They agreed to keep the 
reply from their younger brother Sextus, and to draw lots them- 
selves. Brutus, having a better understanding of the meaning 
of the oracle, pretended to fall as the}^ were leaving the temple, 
and kissed the earth, the mother of all living. 

The fall of Tarquinius, after au oppressive reign of twenty- 
five years, came about by an incident connected with the siege 
of Ardea, during which his son Sextus was guilty of an atro- 
cious deed; which had caused the beautiful and virtuous Lucretia, 



66 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

the wife of CoUatinus, to take her life by plunging a poniard 
into her bosom. Brutus and a number of friends swore to 
avenge her death on the Tarquins. He harangued the people, 
and induced them to pass a decree deposing the king, and 
banishing him and his family from the city ; he then went to 
-| the camp at Ardea ; and induced the army likewise to 
abandon the cause of the tyrant. Tarquinius, with Titus 
and Aruns, his sons, went for safety to Caere in Etruria, while 
Sextus, his youngest son, repaired to Gabii, which belonged to 
him, and soon after died a violent death. 

Then the Romans abolished the royal office, and declared 
their state a republic. Under their new constitution, the gov- 
ernment devolved on two consuls, clothed with royal authority, 
who were chosen annually from the ranks of the patricians, held 
office for only one year, and were responsible for their official con- 
duct. They presided over the senate and commanded the army. 

Brutus and CoUatinus were chosen the first consuls. Brutus 
began his office by filling the vacant places in the senate with 
members of the equestrian order ; and these new senators were 
styled Conscript Fathers. 

The new republic was born i;n _ troublous times, and exposed 
at once to war. The Tarquins^sent ambassadors demanding the 
restitution of their property, who, under cover of that request, 
succeeded in forming a plot for the restoration of the royal 
family. The plot was discovered, and the two sons of Brutus 
unfortunately were implicated in it. It was his sad duty to 
pronounce sentence upon them as traitors, and to witness as a 
judge the execution of that sentence. He buried the feelings 
of a parent in his patriotism. The treasonable plot cancelled 
the agreement of giving up the royal property. The personal 
estate was abandoned to the people to plunder, and all their 
landed estate divided among the poor, except the plain between 
the city and the river, which was reserved for public use. It 
was consecrated to Mars, and called Campus Martins^ that is, 
the field of Mars. 



509-507.] TARQUINIUS THE PROUD. 67 

Then Tarquinius, aided by the Etruscans, inarched against 
Rome. A battle was fought, in which Aruns, the king's son, 
and Brutus met in single combat, and slew each other. The 
event of the battle was doubtful, and both sides claimed the 
victory ; but in the night a divine voice proclaimed that the 
Romans had conquered because the Etruscans had lost one 
man more. Then the Etruscans fled. Valerius, who was con- 
sul, delivered the funeral oration of Brutus. 

Lars Porsena, king of Clusium in Etruria, at the instance of 

Tanjuinius, marched with a powerful army against Rome, took 

the Janiculum, one of the hills, and only the Tiber r- 

*^ [507 

spanned by a wooden bridge kept him from the city. 

The bridge was defended by Horatius Codes and two other 

heroes against the whole Etruscan army, while the Romans 

were breaking down the parts nearest the city. Lartius and 

Herminius, his companions, retreated when the bridge was 

about to fall. It came down with a mighty crash, amidst the 

shouts of the Romans. Then Horatius prayed to father Tiberi- 

nus to protect him, plunged into the stream, and swam safely 

across it, heedless of the arrows which the enemy sent after 

him. The grateful citizens erected a statue in his praise, 

and gave him as much land as he could plough round in one 

day. 

Although shut out from Rome, the enemy besieged it, and 
hoped to starve the citizens into submission. In order to save 
the city, a patrician youth, called Cains Mucins, undertook to 
assassinate Porsena. With a dagger concealed in his dress, 
he crossed the river, entered the camp, and got safely to the 
royal tent, where the soldiers were receiving their pay. Mis- 
taking the secretary for the king. Mucins killed him on the 
spot. He was seized, disarmed, and taken to Porsena. Un- 
daunted, he gave his name, and aA^owed his design, adding that 
many more Romans were ready to attempt his life. 

The king ordered him to be burnt alive unless he revealed 
the whole of the plot. 



68 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Mucius said that men who purposed to do a glorious thing 
held life of little value, and, in proof of what he said, thrust 
his right hand into the flame of the altar, and unflinchingly 
allowed the fire slowly to consume it. Amazed at the gallant 
act, Porsena ordered him to be set free, and to return unhurt. 
Then Mucius, in order to show his gratitude for the king's 
generosity, exclaimed, " Three hundred noble youths have 
sworn to have thy life. On me the lot fell first ; the others will 
be here in their turns." From the loss of his right hand, 
Mucius obtained the surname " Scsevola," that is, the left- 
handed. 

Terrified at the announcement, Porsena made proposals for 
peace, according to which the Romans engaged to restore the 
Veientian territory across the Tiber, and the Etruscans to evac- 
uate the Janiculum. For the due performance of their part the 
Romans had to give hostages. One of them was Cloelia, a 
noble Roman maiden, who, with her companions, had made her 
escape by swimming across the Tiber, but was honorably re- 
stored by the Romans. Porsena admired her pluck, and 
unwilling to be outdone in generosity, not only set her free, but 
allowed her to extend the same privilege to other hostages. 
She chose the youngest, and returned home, rejoicing not only 
in her freedom, but in the possession of a horse, adorned with 
splendid trappings, which Porsena had given to her, while he 
sent to the Roman people a statue of a female on horseback, 
which was set up in the Sacred Way. 

Tarquinius, though disappointed by the course of Porsena, 
did not relinquish his efforts against the republic. From the 
-| home of his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, at Tuscu- 
lum, he stirred up the thirty Latin towns to espouse his 
cause, and a final battle was fought at the lake Regillus. The 
dictator, Aulus Postumius, commanded the Romans, while Tar- 
quinius and his son-in-law led the Latins. It was a fierce and 
bloody struggle, resembling that in the plain of Troy. Chief 
engaged chief in single combat, and almost all the chiefs on 



1 



496-495.] TARQUINIUS THE PROUD. 69 

both sides were slain or wounded. Tarquinius himself was 
wounded, and fled for his life, and the Latins followed his 
example. 

According to old tradition the Romans gained this battle not 
without divine aid. The dictator, Aulus, saw two youths of 
godlike aspect and heroic stature, clad in resplendent armor, 
and mounted on two snow-white steeds at the head of the 
Roman horse charging the Latins, and leading the former to 
victory. They were believed to have been Castor and Pollux, 
and, in the da3'S of Cicero, the mark of a horse's hoof on a 
rock, close by the lake, was shown as a token of their presence. 

But be this as it may, it is certain that the Latins were 
crushed, and that Tarquinius, unable to find other p 
people to fight his battles, was glad to secure a place of 
refuge at Cumae, where he died, a childless and wretched old 
man. 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch, " Publicola " ; Macaulay, " Lays of Ancient Rome " ; 
Smith, "Dictionary," etc., mider "Tarquinius." 



70 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 



264-241] DUILIUS AND REGULUS. 

The famous city of Carthage in Northern Africa was 
founded by the Phoenicians, the greatest and most enterprising 
commercial nation of ancient times. Their fleets were sailing 
in every sea, and visited the most distant parts of the earth 
then known. At an early period they went to Britain for tin, 
and not only ventured as far as Senegal and the Canary Islands, 
but circumnavigated Africa. 

The most celebrated and important city of Phoenicia was 
Tyre. Among the numerous colonies she established was Car- 
thage, and, according to legend, under very peculiar circum- 
stances. Dido, the daughter of a king of Tj^e, escaped from 
the power of her brother Pygmalion with the treasures for the 
sake of which he had murdered her husband. A band of 
noble Tyrians shared her flight, and, as they were sailing along 
the coast of Africa, they noted a spot well suited to the 
establishment of a city. They landed and made a bargain 
with the natives to grant them by purchase as much land as 
could be covered with a bull's hide. Dido then cut the hide 
into very narrow strips, and so enclosed a large tract, on which 
she built a city ; when the newly founded city had grown in 
size, the space originally enclosed with the hide became the 
-J site of the fortress, and in memory of its acquisition 
called the place Byrsa, that is, a bull's hide. 

The Romans called the Carthaginians, on account of their 
Phoenician origin, Poenians, or Punians, and, because they 
considered them to be very treacherous, were wont to describe 
treachery, or faithlessness, by the phrase "Punic faith." 

Carthage, though not the only Phoenician colony in North 
Africa, was doubtless the greatest, and the mother city of 



264-241.] DUILIUS AND REGULUS. 71 

numerous colonies of her own planting. Her empire in Africa 
extended from the Pillars of Hercules (Straits of Gibraltar) 
to the Great Desert, and in the Mediterranean over the con- 
quered islands of Sardinia, Corsica, and Sicily. Her enter- 
prise was so great and successful that, at the beginning of the 
Punic Wars, all the islands of the Western Mediterranean be- 
longed to her, and that her colonies were found on many points 
of the Atlantic coast, and even upon islands in the Atlantic. 

Carthage was governed by two chief magistrates, or judges, 
called Suffetes; there was also a large popular assembly, out 
of which were chosen for life a council of one hundred elders, 
who, for convenience, met in twenty boards of five members 
each, and were the executive of the state. 

AVhen the Romans began to extend their conquests beyond 
Italj', hostile contact with the Carthaginians was inevitable. 
The coveted possession of Sicily, the pearl of the Mediterra- 
nean, was the first cause of the long wars, waged by those pow- 
erful nations. Carthage held the greater part of the island, 
while Syracuse, ruled by king Hiero, and Messana, occupied b}^ 
the Mamertines, a band of robbers, were independent of her 
rule. The latter had been defeated by Hiero, and, distrustful 
of the proffered aid of the Carthaginians, invoked that of 
the Romans, who successively worsted Hiero and the Cartha- 
ginians. This was the commencement of the First r^^^_^^ 
Punic War, which lasted thirteen years. 

Carthage sent forth a formidable fleet, and vexed the Romans 
in many ways. Until then almost all their conquests had been 
made on land, for they had no fleet, and without a fleet they 
could not cope with Carthage. Fortunately for them a Cartha- 
ginian vessel, which had been cast ashore, was seized, and used 
as a model in the building of a Roman fleet of two hundred 
sail, which, with their usual energy, they completed in two 
mouths. They drilled their sailors, and contrived by ingenious 
devices to overcome the clumsiness of their ships, and the in- 
experience of their crews. Caius Duilius, one of the Roman 



72 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

consuls, is credited with the invention of a mast, set up at the 
-| prow of each ship, to which was attached a movable 
platform, or drawbridge. At the approach of a hostile 
ship, the drawbridge was lowered, a grappling iron at the end 
of it held both ships fast together, the soldiers rushed upon the 
bridge, and engaged the foe in hand to hand fight. The device 
proved a grand success in the famous battle of Mylae, in which 
Duilius was victorious, and took, or disabled, 50 Carthaginian 
vessels. A triumph was decreed to Duilius, and a white mar- 
ble column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured ships, 
erected to his honor. 

A second naval victory, obtained by the Romans three years 
later, off the Lipari islands, emboldened them to undertake the 
invasion of Africa. A fleet of 330 ships, manned by 140,000 
sailors and marines, and commanded by the consuls L. Manliug 
Vulso and M. Attilius Regains, sailed for Africa. They met 
and defeated the Carthaginian fleet of 350 ships, manned by 
150,000 men, off Ecnomus, on the coast of Sicily, proceeded to 
Africa, landed, plundered and wasted the country. Destruc- 
tion marked their path, and the news of their approach spread 
terror through Carthage. Ambassadors sent out to Regulus, 
now in sole command, suing foi- peace, were treated with scorn ; 
but the opportune arrival of Xanthippus, a Spartan mercenary, 
-| who was put in command of the Carthaginian troops, 
turned the scales in a brilliant victory over Regulus. 

The Spartan leader had only a small army of 12,000 foot, 
4,000 horse, and 100 elephants to oppose to the much larger force 
of the Romans, but, confident of success, he marched into the 
open country to meet the enemy, and opened the engagement 
with a charge of the elephants and the horse, so well directed 
and executed as to seize the Romans with panic, and to con- 
summate their total overthrow ; 30,000 were slain in battle, 
hardly 2,000 escaped, while Regulus himself and 500 Romans 
were taken prisoners. A Roman fleet, sent out to rescue the 
remnant of the consular army, on the return voyage was over- 



260-250.] DUILIUS AND REGULUS. 73 

taken by a storm, and almost the whole armament was either 
wrecked or destroyed. 

The Carthaginians then transferred the war to Sicily, but 
were defeated in the battle of Panormus. Metellus, the n 
proconsul of Sicily, who commanded the Romans, had 
turDed the sad experience of Regulus to good account. Per- 
ceiving that the enemy had again brought 130 elephants into 
the field, and aware that these animals are easily terrified, and 
when wounded rather a hindrance than an advantage to the foe, 
he made them the primary object of his attack. They turned 
round in wild dismay, and spread confusion through the ranks 
of the Carthaginians, who were routed. A large number of 
prisoners and lO-i elephants were captured and led in triumph 
to Rome. 

The disastrous event of Panormus led the Carthaginians to 
send an embassy to Rome, instructed to negotiate peace and an 
exchange of prisoners. They allowed Regulus to accompany 
the embassy under promise of returning into captivity if their 
proposals were rejected, thinkiug that in order to obtain his 
own libert}', he would exert his influence at home in securing, 
at least, an exchange of prisoners. But they did not know his 
mettle ; for instead of urging his countrymen to agree to the 
proposals of the embassj', he advised them to refuse their con- 
sent, because he believed a peace to be injurious to the interests 
of Rome. Unmoved by the entreaties of his friends to stay at 
Rome, the stern patriot, true to his honor, and superior to sel- 
fish advantage, returned to Carthage to meet a mart3'r's death. 

The legend says, that the Carthaginians, upon learning from 
their ambassadors that Regulus, instead of advocating the pro- 
posals for peace, had used his influence against their adoption, 
were exasperated beyond measure, and took a terrible revenge ; 
they cut off his ej'elids, and cast him into a dark dungeon, and, 
after he had become accustomed to the gloom, suddenly exposed 
him to the fierce rays of a burning sun, and then, to aggravate 
his misery, placed him in a cask, the sides of which were 



74 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

studded with iron spikes, and rolled it down a hill until he 
died. 

The news of his barbarous death, of course, shocked all Rome, 
and, in a barbarous age, begot a barbarous retaliation. The 
senate, it is said, delivered Hamilcar and Bostar, two of the 
most distinguished Carthaginian prisoners, to the family of 
Regulus, who, in their turn, put them to death with cruel tor- 
ments. 

The war continued with fluctuating successes and defeats on 

both sides eight j^ears longer, until in the naval battle, fought 

-, off the island of JEgusa, the Carthaginians, commanded 
242] & ' & 7 

by Hamilcar, were defeated in a decisive victory by the 

Roman consul, C. Lutatius. Proposals for peace ensued, and 
were granted on condition that the Carthaginians evacuated 
Sicily, restored the prisoners, and paid an indemnit}^ of 2,200 
-1 talents, payable in 20 years. The idemnity was after- 
wards raised to 3,200 talents, and the term for payment 
lessened from 20 to 10 years. Tlius ended the First Punic War. 



REFERENCES. 

Niebuhr, "History of E.ome,^Wbl. HI.; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., 
under " Duilius " and " Regulus." See also Niebuhr, " Lectures on 
Roman History," ed. of Schmitz, vol. I. One of the best authorities 
for the entire period of the Punic Wars is Halthaus, "History of 
Rome during the Punic Wars," Leipzig, 1846, but accessible only to 
German students. 




247-219.] HANNIBAL, 75 



[247 



HANNIBAL 

The illustrious Hannibal, son of Hamilcar Barca, was born 
the very 3ear in which his father was appointed to the 
command in Sicily. He was only nine years old when 
his father took him with him into Spain, and made him swear 
upon the altar eternal enmity to Rome. That oath, which he 
never forgot, is the key to his life. He was present at the 
battle in which his father was killed, and though then only 
eighteen years old, had already so greatly distinguished himself 
that Hasdrubal, who succeeded Hamilcar, placed him in high 
command, and when that leader died, the army, with one con- 
sent, proclaimed him commander-in-chief, and their act p 
was ratified by the government at Carthage. 

He was a handsome man, of commanding appearance, inured 
to frost and heat, indifferent to hunger and thirst. Wrapped 
in his martial cloak, he often slept on the bare ground, not at 
stated hours, but when he felt tired. Brought up in the camp, 
a soldier trained by experience, kind and humane in his care for 
the meanest of his warriors, the}' almost idolized him. Natur- 
ally endowed with talents of the highest order, he improved 
them by cultivation ; he spoke several languages besides his 
mother-tongue, and was partial to the company of learned 
Greeks ; his perceptions were quick, while his good sense, 
courage, indomitable energy, and the general weight of his 
character, marked him as a leader of men. 

His first contact with Rome was at the siege of Saguntum, a 
city on the eastern coast of Spain. It lasted eight months, p 
and ended in the taking of the city by storm. The 
brave defenders lighted a fire, and preferred death in the flames 



76 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

to life in the hands of the enemy. The fall of the city exasper- 
ated the Romans, who sent an embassy to Carthage, demand- 
ing the surrender of Hannibal. Pending the matter, Fabius, 
one of the embassy, stepped forth, and folding up his toga, ex- 
claimed, " Which will 3'ou have, peace or war?" The Cartha- 
ginians replied, "Which you will." "War, then," said Fa- 

-, bius ; and his words were the signal of the Second 
218~201 

Punic War, which lasted seventeen years. 

Late in the spring of the following year, Hannibal, at the 
-. . head of 90,000 foot, 12,000 horse, and 37 elephants, 
crossed the Ebro, and rapidly led his army over the 
Pyrenees. He had reached the Phone, when P. Cornelius 
Scipio, the Roman commander, sailed into the port of Mar- 
seilles. The most difficult task in the passage of that river was 
the transportation of the elephants ; but the plan of enticing 
them on large rafts proved successful, and though some leaped 
from the rafts, all got safe to the opposite bank. 

After some dela}- , Hannibal began early in October his fa- 
mous march across the Alps. His road was that over the Little 
St. Bernard ; the season was already advanced, snows had fal- 
len, and in some places the road was impassable. The suffer- 
ings of his army from hunger and cold were aggravated by the 
enmity of the mountaineers, who hurled down fragments of 
rock ; the elephants and horses were terrified and refused to 
move ; the carriages rolled back and went over ice-bound preci- 
pices. At last, by indomitable perseverance, he reached the 
summit of the pass, and inspired his soldiers with new courage 
by showing them the fertile plains of Italy, which lay smiling at 
their feet. The descent was very difficult. At one point, a 
fearful precipice, several thousand feet deep, yawned before 
them, and the only road was a narrow, zigzag path which crept 
along the rocks. Hannibal had it widened to the required di- 
mensions, and the army descended on it into the plains. His 
losses were fearful ; the march lasted fifteen days, the ascent 
to the summit, 6,700 feet high, occupied nine days, the descent 



218-201.J HANNIBAL. 'J'l 

six days ; and when he mustered his army in the plains of the 
Po, it was found that the whole of his available strength num- 
bered only 20,000 foot and 6,000 horse. With so insignificant a 
force he ventured to attempt the overthrow of a power that a 
few years before was able to put in the field an army of more 
than 700,000 men. 

After a short interval of rest, Hannibal broke camp and de- 
feated the Romans in a cavalry fight on the Ticinus ; he p 
crossed the Po, and soon after engaged the enemy, com- 
manded by Scipio and Sempronius, on the Trebia, a fordable 
mountain stream, whose banks were thickly tangled with brush. 
Hannibal placed his army on the eastern bank in ambush, pro- 
voked the Romans, stationed on the western bank, to ford the 
stream, and completely defeated them with heavy loss. This 
victory made him master of Northern Italy, and secured to him 
the friendship of the Gauls, with whom he was able to recruit 
his army. 

Early next spring he entered into the low lands of the Arno. 
The river had overflowed its banks and impeded his prog- r- 
ress. For four days and three nights the soldiers had 
to wade through water up to their knees ; the horses lost their 
hoofs, the beasts of burden stuck fast in the marshes, and 
Hannibal, in consequence of a violent attack of ophthalmia, 
lost the 'sight of an eye. He had hardly emerged from the 
marshes and gained higher ground, when apprized of the ap- 
proach of a Roman army, commanded b}^ Flaminius, who had 
come to intercept him, he marched past the latter, and drew 
him into the narrow valley of the lake Trasj^menus. Hannibal 
held the heights, and the Roman army, hemmed in between the 
lake and the mountains, was almost destroyed ; thousands fell 
by the sword, thousands more perished in the lake. A body of 
4,000 horse, sent to the support of Flaminius, was intercepted, 
and all either slain or made prisoners. 

Hannibal, avoiding Rome, pursued a southward course along 
the Adriatic. The news of the disastrous event of Trasyme- 



78 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

nus spread alarm through the city, and led to the aiDpointment 
as dictator, of Quintus Fabius, a cautious, thoughtful man who 
concluded to act only on the defensive. When Hannibal came 
into the Falernian plain, and laid it waste, Fabius kept hanging 
on his rear, but never lost sight of him. If Hannibal went into 
camp, Fabius went into camp ; if he began to march, Fabius 
accompanied him on the heights. This hesitating policy gave 
umbrage to his soldiers, who were tired, as they said, of mov- 
ing hither and thither in the clouds ; they denounced him as a 
coward, and nicknamed him " Cunctator," that is, the delayer. 
But Fabius let them talk, and pursued his course so skilfully 
that he shut up Hannibal in a narrow valley, north of Capua. 

Hannibal, though in imminent peril, made his escape by 
stratagem. He tied faggots to the horns of 2,000 oxen, at 
night set fire to the faggots, and drove the infuriated beasts 
towards the Romans, who imagined that the enemy was escap- 
ing over the hills, and left their post. Thus Hannibal got out 
of the trap, and safe to Samnium. 

When the senate, displeased with Fabius, had clothed Minu- 
cius, the master of the horse, with equal power, the latter, 
eager to pursue a different policy, fell into a snare set by Hanni- 
bal, and would have been cut up but for the timely arrival of 
Fabius, who safely reconducted the armj^ to the heights. "I 
was afraid," said Hannibal, "that the cloud on the nlountains 
would bring on a storm." 

Aug. 2, In the year following was fought at Cannas one of the 
216 most terrible battles of the whole war, which ended in 
the annihilation of a Roman arm}^ of nearly 90,000 men, with 
a loss of 45,000 slain, including 80 senators and 3,000 
knights. Accident, or, more probably, design, favored Hanni- 
bal ; it is said that he caused the land to be ploughed up, and 
that a strong south wind blew the clouds of limestone dust in 
the ej^es of the Romans. 

The news of this overwhelming disaster unmanned Rome, 
and filled the citizens with frantic despair ; they sought to ap- 



216-212.] HANNIBAL. 79 

pease the wrath of heaven by acts of humiliation, and the 
heathenish expedient of sacrificing human victims. Although 
Hannibal committed the capital error of not following up his 
advantage by an immediate advance upon Rome, the decisive 
victory of Cannae made him master of Lower Italy, which 
hailed him as conqueror. He went into winter quarters at 
Capua, a city renowned for its wealth and luxury, and his resi- 
dence there marks the turning point of his fortune, and the 
decline of the military glory of his soldiers, who, according to 
some, were corrupted by luxury and self-indulgence, and ac- 
cording to others, were replaced by new troops unfitted to suc- 
ceed the veterans who had come with him from Africa and 
gradually died. 

Hannibal stood greatly in need of a seaport in order to open 
direct communication with Carthage ; he tried in vain to pos- 
sess himself of Cumse and Naples, and at Nola sustained a 
repulse which Roman oratory called a defeat. 

The fame of Hannibal had spread beyond the confines of 
Italy, and led to an alliance between him and S^'racuse, in con- 
sequence of which the Roman general Marcellus was sent 
with an army to Sicily, and blockaded Syracuse, where p 
two of Hannibal's ambassadors had been placed at the 
head of affairs. The efforts of the Romans were frustrated by 
the genius of Archhnedes, who counterworked their mines, and 
contrived the erection of engines, some of which threw huge 
pieces of timber and rock into the Roman vessels with fatal 
effect, while others had an iron grappling apparatus by means 
of which a ship was lifted up out of the water and dashed to 
pieces against the wall. Of these Marcellus exclaimed, "He- 
uses our ships for buckets to draw water." It is also said that 
he set fire to the Roman ships by means of burning ^ 
mirrors. In the third year of the siege Syracuse fell by 
treacher}'. Informed by some deserters, that in consequence 
of a festival, the usual precautions against surprise had been 
relaxed, some Romans scaled the walls, and opened the gates 



80 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

from within. The city was given up to plunder, and most of 
the inhabitants put to the sword ; those who escaped the sword 
either perished with hunger or were sold as slaves. Archi- 
medes was among the slain. He sat lost in mathematical 
figures, which he had traced in sand, when a Roman entered. 
"Do not spoil my circles ! " exclaimed Archimedes. A thrust 
through his bod}' was the Roman's reply. The fall of Syracuse 
restored Sicily to Roman dominion. 

About the same time the Romans laid siege to Padua, and 
Hannibal, in order to withdraw them, marched against Rome, 
but was too weak to prevent the capture of the former city, or 
to inflict more than fright upon the latter. He ravaged, with- 

-, out opposition, the country up to the very walls of Rome, 

and maintained himself in Southern Italy, where in the 

battle of Venusia he defeated the Romans. In the year fol- 

-, lowing, Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, arrived with 
Carthaginian auxiliaries, but before effecting a junction 
with him, was overtaken by the Romans on the bank of the 
Metaurus, and in a decisive battle lost not only his army and 
camp, but his life. He died like a brave man, but Nero, the 
Roman commander, behaved lil^ a savage brute. He had his 
head cut off, and, hastening towards the camp of Hannibal, 
flung it into it. That general was horrified at the terrible 
token, in which he read, with sad foreboding, the destiny of 
Carthage. Sullenly he retired into the southwestern parts of 
Italy, in whose mountain fastnesses he maintained his ground 
for nearly four years longer. 

The war between Rome and Carthage, waged on the Spanish 
peninsula, had ended in the entire expulsion of the Carthagin- 

-| ians. Scipio, the victorious general, went as proconsul, 
first to Sicily, then to Africa, and established his 
camp north of Carthage. After fifteen years' absence in the 
enemy's country, during which he had laid it waste from one 
extremity to the other, and maintained his superiority in the 
field, Hannibal was summoned to the defence of the threatened 



208-195.] HANNIBAL. 81 

city. He obej^ed, loth to leave Italy, and exclaimed that Car- 
thage, through envy and ingratitude, and not the Romans, had 
conquered him. 

The opposing armies laj' in the plain of Zama (Algiers) . 
Convinced that the impending battle must decide the fate of 
Carthage, Hannibal proposed an interview with Scipio, which 
is said to have taken place. Hannibal urged peace, and 
offered the cession of Spain and all the Mediterranean posses- 
sions. But Scipio refused the terms, saying : " Had you made 
these overtures before I sailed hither, and carried victory to 
the gates of Carthage, we should have accepted them. But 
now it is too late. Who can trust Carthage? Let the sword 
decide." 

In the battle of Zama, which was fought with great gallantry 
and skill on both sides, the superior strength of Scipio carried 
the day and decided the war. The Carthaginians lost 20,000 
in slain, and as many prisoners. Hannibal himself fled with a^ 
few horsemen to Hadrumetum, and all hopes of successful 
resistance being now at an end, Carthage had to submit to a 
peace of which these were the terms : " Carthage was to retain 
her possessions in Africa, but agreed to give 100 hostages, sur- 
render all ships of war except 10, all her elephants, pay an 
annual subsidy of 200 talents for 50 3'ears, and wage no more 
wars without the consent of Rome." This treaty was formally 
ratified at Rome in the following 3'ear, and thus ended p 
the Second Punic War. 

Scipio returned to Rome in triumph, and was accorded the 
surname Africanus, that is, the African. 

Hannibal was honorably received at Carthage, and used his 
best endeavors to raise her from her fall both by administrative 
reforms and alliances with the enemies of Rome. Rome de- 
manded his surrender, and he fled to Antiochus HI., king of 
Syria, who was on the eve of war with Rome. Antiochus, p 
instead of taking the counsel of Hannibal, pursued }iis 
own course, and was defeated at Magnesia by Scipio Asiaticus, 



82 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

the brother of Africanus. Again Rome made the surrender of 
Hannibal one of the conditions on which peace was granted to 
Antiochus. Hannibal, foreseeing his danger, made his escape, 
and finally took up his abode with Prusias, king of Bithynia. 

But even there he was not allowed to live in peace, for the 
Romans required Flaminius to demand his surrender. The 
king was compelled to respect the summons, and sent troops to 
arrest the aged general, who, finding that all approaches were 
beset, and escape impossible, to avoid falling alive into the 
hands of his enemies, took poison, which, in expectation of 
such a juncture, he carried in the hollow of his signet-ring, 
saying, "I will rid the Romans of their constant care, as they 
cannot wait for the death of an old man." Thus died the 
great Hannibal, unquestionably one of the ablest generals the 
world has seen, in the sixty -fifth year of his life. 

-| In the same j^ear died Scipio, his conqueror, 52 years 
4 old, chagrined at the ingratitude and injustice of his fel- 

low-citizens, who had entertained the unfounded charge brought 
against him of having received a bribe from Antiochus, king 
of Syria. 

REFERENCES. 

Plutarch, " Hannibal " ; Arnold, " History of Rome," vol. III. ; 
Mebuhr, "Lectures on Roman History," vol.1. Lect. 8-16 ; Smith, 
" Dictionary," etc., under " Hannibal." 

The French work of Yaudoncourt, "History of the Italian Cam- 
paigns of Hannibal," 3 vols., Milan, 1812, contains an excellent 
military commentary on the operations of Hannibal. 




149-146.] SCIPIO AFRICANUS JUNIOR. 83 



SCIPIO AFRICANUS JUNIOR. 

After the lapse of half a centur}' the commercial enterprise 
of Carthage had revived her ])rosperity, and made her an 
object of envy to the Romans. The senate regarded her with 
suspicion and ill-concealed hostility. Her most inveterate 
enemy was the stern Cato, who, early in life, had served under 
Fabius, and inherited from those who had fought the Carthagin- 
ians in Italy invincible hatred for Carthage and whatever 
belonged to it. Thus far she had faithfully kept all the con- 
ditions of the treaty, and there was no pretext for war. 

Masinissa, king of Numidia, a willing tool of the Romans, 
and a thorn in the side of Carthage, advanced an unjust claim 
to the oldest Phoenician settlements on the coast of Africa, 
which doubtless belonged to Carthage. As the terms of the 
treaty prohibited her from carrying on any war without the 
sanction of Rome, Carthage referred the claim to the Roman 
senate. A commission of ten deputies, of whom Cato was one, 
was sent to Africa, and their arbitration, though accepted by 
Masinissa, was rejected at Carthage. Cato, on his return, 
harangued the senate upon the danger of the growing power 
of Carthage, of the strength of her preparation for war, and 
of her nearness. Thrusting his hand into his toga, he pro- 
duced a bunch of earlj^ ripe figs, and in answer to those who 
praised their freshness and beauty, said, "These figs were 
gathered three days ago at Carthage : so close is the enemy to 
our walls." Most of the senators favored the immediate de- 
spatch of an army, but no formal resolution was adopted. 
From that time forth Cato never spoke in the senate, no matter 
on what subject, without the concluding words, "For the rest, 
I vote that Carthage be destroyed." 



84 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

The Carthaginians, convinced that Eome would not aid them, 
in self-defence took up arms against Masinissa, but were un- 
successful. The Eomans, in search of a pretext for war, 
thereupon declared that Carthage had broken the peace, and 
ordered a powerful army to be sent to Sicily. The consuls in 
command had instructions to negotiate for peace with the Car- 
-, thaginian delegates, who had repaired to that island. 
This was the beginning of the Third Punic War. 

The consuls demanded that 300 children of the best families 
should be surrendered as hostages. The Carthaginians com- 
plied with this terrible condition. The hostages were fettered, 
and, amidst the heart-rending sorrow of their disconsolate par- 
ents, sent off to Sicily. To the inquiry of the Carthaginian 
delegates, if there were an}' other conditions, the Romans gave 
the haughty reply, "Inquire again after we have landed in 
Africa." 

The consular armies sailed for Africa and landed at Utica. 
The ambassadors of Carthage then were told that Rome required 
them to surrender their ships. They were given up, and burned 
in the presence of the people. After the ships had been de- 
stroyed, the Romans demanded the surrender of their arms and 
implements of war, saying, ^^tlnder the protection of Rome 
you have no use for them." Humiliated, Carthage accepted 
also this condition, and gave up 200,000 stand of arms and 
3,000 catapults ; mournful indeed must have been the feelings 
with which the senators, the nobles, and all the people saw their 
last and only means of defence disappear in the Roman camp. 
Disarmed, and apparently at the mercy of their implacable foe, 
who might have been satisfied with the tokens of their submis- 
sion, the Carthaginians were now yet further required to leave 
their homes and city, for Carthage was to be razed to the 
ground, and if they built a new city, it must be ten miles away 
from the coast. 

Then the poor people gave vent to their smothered indigna- 
tion in loud discontent. They invoked the vengeance of heaven 



149-146.] SCIPIO AFRICANUS JUNIOR. 85 

upon their cruel oppressors, and swore that they would not sur- 
vive the destruction of their city, but defend it to the last drop 
of their blood. Instantly they rushed to the gates, closed and 
fortified them ; they shut the harbor by drawing a huge chain 
across its entrance. All Italians in the city were put to death. 
They had no ships, and no arms, yet they despaired not. They 
had skill and energy ; they loved their city and hated the 
Romans. They unroofed their houses to provide timber for 
the ships they resolved to build ; the whole city became a work- 
shop, and no sacrifice was deemed too great for the heroic 
patriotism which animated the people. The women brought their 
jewels of silver and gold to be molten and turned into arrow- 
heads, and many cut off their long hair to be converted into 
bowstrings and ropes for the catapults. They turned out daily 
500 spears, 300 swords, 140 shields, and 1,000 missiles for 
catapults, and built in the space of two months 120 decked 
vessels. Hasdrubal, the general who had been unsuccessful 
against Masinissa, undertook the defence of the city, which 
bravely defied the Romans for two entire years. 

In the third year, Publius Cornelius Scipio ^milianus, the 
son of ^milius Paulus, who had been adopted by the p 
son of Scipio Africanus the elder, was placed in command 
of the Roman army. He began operations by surrounding the 
city, and blockading the port, and thus cut off all supplies by sea 
and land. A fortified camp thrown up around the city, and a 
long dam or mole, extending from a place called the Taenia to 
the isthmus, made one unbroken line, within which lay the 
devoted city. B.ut even this could not arrest the indomitable 
energy of the brave Carthaginians. No sooner had Scipio con- 
structed his dam than they cut a new channel into the ocean, 
and put out to sea with the fleet which they had built, p 
That fleet unfortunately was destroyed, and the fate of 
the city was sealed in the ensuing 3^ear, when famine and disease 
had done their deadly work. The sufferings and horrors of the 
siege were still aggravated by the incapacity of the selfish and 
tyrannical Hasdrubal., 



86 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Not until the extremity of famine had weakened the hapless 
Carthaginians, did Scipio order the assault. The city stood on 
a peninsula, and was defended by a treble wall across the isth- 
mus. This wall the Romans scaled at night, and carried fire and 
sword into the city. The Carthaginians fought with the hero- 
ism of despair ; for six days the work of carnage was going on 
in the port, in the streets, and in the houses. The Romans 
drove the people from story to story, and at last transferred the 
butcher}' from the streets to the roofs. 

The streets were filled with the slain, and the famished Car- 
thaginians, still fighting, fed upon their bodies. The city was 
set on fire, and the flames raged uninterruptedly for seventeen 
days. Thousands of those who had escaped death hy famine, 
disease, or the sword, took their own lives by rushing into the 
flames. 

Then proclamation was made, promising life to all who had 
sought refuge in the citadel (except the Roman deserters), if 
they would surrender, and 50,000, the sole remnant of a popu- 
lation of 700,000, came forth to exchange death for slavery. 
The terrible spectacle of the miser}' of Carthage is said to have 
moved Scipio to tears, as he sa^ on a commanding height, star- 
ing at the terrors enacting at liis feet. By him stood Polybius, 
the historian, to whom he cited the words of Homer : — 

" The day will come when holy Troy must fall," li. iv. 164. 

When the flames had subsided, the remaining buildings and 
ruins were razed to the ground, and the plough passed over the 
site where for seven centuries had stood in the splendor of a mag- 
nificence superior to that of Rome, one of the queen cities of the 
ancient world. Carthage was a howling wilderness ; her terri- 
tory became a Roman colony, which was called Africa ; the 
conqueror, or destroyer, of Carthage was accorded a splendid 
triumph, and surnamed, not only by the right of inheritance, 
but in virtue of his exploits, Scipio Africanus. 

In the same year, Mummius, another Roman soldier, accom- 



149-146.] 



SCIPIO AFRICANUS JUNIOR. 



87 



plished at Corinth what Scipio had done at Carthage. Her 
citizens were massacred, her women and children sold into 
slavery. All her treasures of art were removed, the torch was 
applied, and Corinth was razed to the ground ; while Greece, 
from that time forth, became known as a Roman province, 
called Achaia. 

REFERENCES. 

See the works named at the end of "Duilius and Regiilus" and 
"Hannibal"; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., under "Scipio," No. 21. 
Also, Plutarch, " Cato." 




88 ANCIENT mSTOBY. [B.C. 



JULIUS C/ESAR. 

Julius C^esak, born July 12, b.c. 100, was the son of Julius 
Caesar, the praetor, and Aurelia, an excellent and devoted 
mother. His father died when he was sixteen j'ears old, and 
his mother is credited with having directed his education, and 
fostered the pleasant address and winning manners which dis- 
tinguished him throughout his career. He was inured to hard- 
ship, and loved simplicity and moderation. Like all well edu- 
cated young Eomans, he spoke Latin and Greek with equal 
facility, and it is a well-known fact that the last words he 
uttered were spoken in Greek. 

Though allied by his marriage with Cornelia, the daughter of 
Cinna, to the Marian party, Caesar had the good fortune of 
escaping death during the SuUan persecutions. In those days 
of civil commotion, passion raji high ; the friend of Sulla must 
needs be the enemy of Marius, and the friend of Marius the 
enemy of Sulla. The latter commanded Caesar to divorce 
Cornelia, as being the daughter of a known enemy, but the 
youthful husband resolutely refused. Bj^ his refusal he lost his 
position, his wife's dowry, and the right of inheritance, and had to 
flee for his life. Powerful friends interceded on his behalf, and 
Sulla at last pardoned him, exclaiming, "Well, have your own 
way, but remember that many a Marius slumbers in that lad." 

-| Caesar went to Asia, and served his first campaign 

under Thermus, who employed him on a mission to Nico- 

medes HI., to fetch his fleet, and on his return, rewarded 

-, him with a civic crown for saving the life of a fellow- 
80 

soldier in the siege of Mytilene. During his stay in 

Asia, he visited Rhodes to perfect himself in the study of 




Long. W. 



Long. East 10 from Greenwic.'i 2 



THE ROMAN EMPIRE 

AT ITS GREATEST EXTENT 



The Roman Domiuions at the Death of Caesar^ 

The Empire under Trajan I I 




Fisk & See.N. t 



81-65.] JULIUS CMSAR. \^ 89 

oratory, under Apollonius Molo, who was also one of Cicero's 
teachers. 

On the voyage he had the misfortune to be captured by 
pirates off Miletus, who demanded twenty talents for his ransom. 
He laughed at their moderate demand, and promised them fifty, 
for which he sent some of his friends to the neighboring cities 
of Asia, and, pending their return, remained about forty days 
on board the pirate. Utterly fearless, he made himself thor- 
oughly at home with them, and even secured their respect and 
obedience. AVhen he wanted to sleep, he begged them keep 
silence ; he wrote poems and orations, which he rehearsed to 
them, and when they expressed no admiration, he called them 
dunces and barbarians. Sometimes he threatened to crucify 
them ; they treated his menace as a jest, but he was in sober 
earnest ; for after the ransom had been paid, and he had re- 
gained his libert}^ he manned some Milesian vessels, over- 
powered the pirates, and true to his threat, crucified them. 

On his return to Rome, all his efforts were directed to make 
himself popular by affable manners and unbounded liberality. 
For that purpose he not onl}^ spent all he had, but ran into 
debt, and the usurious money-lenders let him have all he wanted, 
convinced that the emoluments of public oflfices within his reach 
afforded ample security for their advances. At the age of 32 
he was chosen qucestor, and before he set out for Spain was 
called upon to mourn the loss of his aunt Julia, the widow of 
Marius, and of his own wife Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. 

After a short absence in Spain, Csesar returned to Rome, 
and married Pompeia, the daughter of Pompej^ ; in the p 
same year he was chosen a superhitendent of the Appian 
Way, and increased his popularity by spending upon its repairs 
a large sum of his own money. Two years later he was r- 
chosen cedile, and as such, charged with the supervision 
of the public buildings and the general direction of the public 
games. The splendor of his tenure of this oflfice, shared by 
Bibulus, his colleague, outshone that of all his predecessors ; on 



90 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

one occasion he produced 320 pair of gladiators in silver armor, 
and by means of this and similar displays, won the hearts of 
the people. Though Bibulus bore half the expense, Caesar 
got credit for the whole, and the former remarked that it re- 
minded him of the temple of Castor and Pollux, which, though 
consecrated to both, was never spoken of otherwise than that 
of Castor. 

Conscious of his great popularity, the ambitious Caesar pre- 
sented himself as candidate for the office of Pontifex Maximus, 
which until then had been held only by men of advanced years. 
His mother advised him not to run for that office, but in vain ; 
and, as he left her on the day of election, said to her, "You 

-| will see me, dear mother, this day either chief pontiff 
or an exile." He was elected. 

The enormous expense connected with his public life had 
raised his debts to almost fabulous dimensions, and he is re- 
ported to have told a friend that he wanted about 15 millions 
in order to be able to say that he had nothing. Appointed pro- 
consul of Spain, his creditors protested against his departure ; 

-| but Crassus, the richest man in Rome, went security for 
him, and he set out for Ms province. 

An anecdote belonging to that journey marks the man. 
Passing a small village at the foot of the Alps, some of his 
officers having jestingly asked him, if he believed that even 
theo'e men were ambitious of office, he replied quite seriously, 
" I assure 3'ou, I had rather be the first man here than second 
at Rome." It is interesting and instructive to record, that 
Napoleon IH., in his History of Caesar,^ approves this senti- 
ment. The story also runs that during his stay in Spain Caesar 
read the History of Alexander, and wept over it, and in answer 
to the astonished inquiries of his friends, remarked, "What? 
Have I not cause for concern ? For when Alexander was as old 
as I, he had conquered the world, and I have done nothing." 

1 " Histoire de Jufes Cesar," vol. I. p. 343. New York, 1865. 



1 



63-49.] JULIUS CMSAR. 91 

Under the dominance of such thoughts he speedily effected 
the complete subjugation of the province, and distinguished 
himself both as a general and a governor. He enriched him- 
self and the arm^', who saluted him as Imperator, while the 
Senate honored him with a public thanksgiving. 

The plunder not only enabled him to pay his debts, but to 
maintain his popularity by the distribution of grain and 
money. 

Through the instrumentalit}^ of Caesar was brought about the 
reconciliation of Pompey and Crassus, who, for many years, 
had been deadly enemies, and an agreement where,by the three 
pledged themselves to support one another, and to divide 
the power among themselves. This formidable coalition of 
wealth, power, and talent, though at the time of its formation 
a profound secret and a private agreement, soon made itself 
felt, and was called the First Triumvirate, that is, " The p 
league of the three men." 

In the year following, Caesar and Bibulus were chosen consuls, 
but the latter was a mere figure-head, and Csesar, backed r- 
by Pompey and Crassus, was the real ruler. The popu- 
lar wit of the Romans expressed the fact by saying that the 
consuls for that year were Julius and Caesar. 

Caesar, foreseeing that the sword must be the ultimate arbiter 
of the rival claims of the powerful parties at Rome, and that 
an 'army attached to him by victories and rewards was the 
surest means for the furtherance of his ambitious designs, 
secured the appointment of the government of Cisalpine Gaul 
and Illyricum with three legions for five j^ears, to which was 
added that of Transalpine Gaul with another legion for the same 
number of years. At the expiration of the five years, r- _ 
his command was extended for five years more. In 
nine eventful years he completely subdued Transalpine Gaul ; 
twice he crossed the Rhine, and twice invaded Britain, which 
until then had been unknown to the Romans. 

During the first years of his residence in Gaul, Pompey and 



92 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

Crassus observed the terms of their agreement. In conse- 
-| quence of a misunderstanding between the latter, Caesar 

arranged a meeting at Luca, in which they were recon- 
ciled to one another, and an understanding was reached accord- 
ing to which Crassus should have the province of Syria, Pompey 
the two Spains, and Csesar obtain the prolongation of his gov- 
ernment for five years more, already referred to. Crassus 
went to Syria and fell a victim to the insatiable avarice which 
had led him to undertake an unjust and aggressive campaign 
against the Parthians. His army was defeated, and he con- 
sented to an interview with the Parthian general. Crassus sus- 
pected treachery, and refused to mount the horse which had been 
-| brought for his use. In the confusion he was slain by 

an unknown hand. His head was cut off and taken to 

king Orodes, who filled it with melted gold, exclaiming, 

" Take thy fill of that which in life thou so greedily didst long 

for." 

As for Pompey, he left the administration of Spain in the 

hands of his deputies, and ruled at Pome with the unlimited 

powers of a despot. The friendly relations between Caesar and 

-, himself be^an to be disturbed, and the breach was wi- 
54 _ / 

dened by the death of Julia, Caesar's daughter, who had 

been married to Pompey. The vast influence of Caesar, aug- 

-, mented by his military exploits, filled Pompey Math envy, 

and stirred him up to undisguised acts of hostility, which 

culminated in the decree of the Senate requiring Caesar to 

disband his army. 

Caesar was on the southern confines of his province when he 

received the mandate of the Senate. He hesitated as to which 

course to pursue : to obey meant to ruin himself ; to disobey 

meant war with Pompey. On the bank of the Rubicon he 

had to decide the matter. On a sudden impulse he made his 

choice, exclaiming, " The die is cast ! " and crossed the river. 

It was a momentous decision, which involved Rome in a long 

and sanguinary civil war. The power of Pompey seemed to be 



56-48.] JULIUS C^SAR. 93 

broken in a moment. The news of Caesar's approach caused 
him and the leaders of the aristocratic party to fly in hot haste 
from Rome to Padua, from Padua to Brundusium ; there he 
took sail and crossed over to D3Trhachium. 

The march of Caesar was like a triumphal progress, for city 
after cit}" opened its gates to him. Unable for want of ships to 
pursue Pompey by sea, Caesar returned as conqueror of Italy to 
Rome, and after a short delay set out for Spain, the province 
of Pompey. On the way, Massilia refused to submit to him ; 
he ordered his lieutenants to besiege it, and marched on to 
Spain, where Pompey had seven legions. After great difficulties 
and reverses, he accomplished their entire reduction in only 40 
days, and compelled Massilia to receive him. His plan was, as 
he said before setting out for Spain, to defeat first an army 
without a general, and then attend to a general without an 
arm3^ He accordingly returned to Rome in the capacity of 
dictator, to which office the praetor M. Lepidus had appointed 
him, in virtue of a law passed for the purpose. He held that 
office for only eleven daj'S, during which he and Servilius Isau- 
ricus were elected consuls for the ensuing year, and some im- 
portant laws were passed. 

Early in the next year he sailed with an army of seven legions 
across the Adriatic, to give battle to Pompey, who had collected 
a force at least twice as large to oppose him. The deci- aug. q, 
sive battle was fought on the plains of Pharsalus or 48 
Pharsalia, in Thessaly, and ended in the total defeat of Pompey. 

Pompey fled to Egypt, in hope of finding an asylum at the 
court of Ptolemy, whose father he had aided in regaining his 
throne. The king, being a minor, the government was in the 
hand of three officials, who, dreading the wrath of Caesar, if 
they allowed Pompey to land, and that of Pompey, if they 
refused, deemed it wisest to do neither, and concluded to put 
him to death. A boat was sent out to meet him ; his wife, his 
son, and friends watched him from the ship, to see what recep- 
tion he might receive from the king, who, with his troops, stood 



94 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

on the edge of the sea ; just as the boat had reached the shore, 
and Pompey was rising from his seat, a centurion stabbed him 
in the back ; the rest drew their swords, and Pompe^^ , drawing 
his toga over his face, without uttering a word calmly submitted 
to his fate. His head was cut off and taken to Caesar, who 
arrived soon afterwards ; he turned from the sight, wept sore 
at the dreadful fate of his friend and son-in-law, and com- 
manded the murderers to be put to death. Philippus, the 
freedman of Pompey, laid the dishonored body to rest in a 
foreign grave. 

Caesar spent a year in Egypt, and supported the beautiful 
Cleopatra in her claims to the joint occupation of the throne. 
Ptolemy was drowned in the Nile, and a younger brother took 
his place. 

An insurrection in Pontus, led by Pharnaces, the son of 
Mithridates, induced Caesar to repair thither, and to defeat him 

-, in a single battle. His despatch on the engagement is 
the shortest on record ; it read thus : " I came, I saw, I 
conquered." 

Upon his return to Rome, Caesar was made dictator for the 
third time. Tidings of a large arjny collected by the partisans 
of Pompe}^ at Utica in North Africa, caused him without 

-| delay to cross into that country, and to rout the enemy 
in the battle of Thapsus. 

Caesar, being now the undisputed master of the Roman world, 
returned to Rome. Before he arrived, a public thanksgiving of 
forty days was decreed in his honor, and he was proclaimed dic- 
tator for ten years. He celebrated in four magnificent triumphs 
his victories in Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. The triumphs 
were followed by largesses in corn, oil, and mone}' to the people, 
and in money and lands to the soldiers. Rich banquets, and 
entertainments in the Circus and Amphitheatre, concluded the 
festivities. 

Uniting in his person all the attributes of supreme authority, 
Caesar now directed his energies to the correction of evils which 



47-45.] JULIUS C^SAR. % 

had crept into the state, and to the enactments of sahitary and 
necessary laws. One of his first and most noble acts was the 
proclamation of a general amnesty. The correction of the 
calendar was one of the most important reforms he introduced. 
Before the adoption of his measure, the civil year was ninety 
days in advance of the solar year. He therefore made the year 
B.C. 46 to consist of 445 days, called for that reason The Year 
of Confusion, and provided that the civil 3'ear should consist of 
365 days with the intercalation of one da}^ every four years. 
This calendar is called after him the Julian.^ He also tried to 
check the widespread extravagance of the period by severe 
sumptuary laws, and introduced and planned numerous measures 
for the benefit of the vast Roman empire. 

In the midst of these peaceful pursuits, Caesar, apprized of 
the formidable insurrection instigated by the sons of Pompey 
in Spain, repaired to that province, and in the sanguin- r- 
ary battle of Munda defeated their army. 

He returned to Rome in September, and contrary to usage 
entered the city in triumph, although his victory had been gained 
over Roman citizens. The Senate received him with tokens of 
servile flattery. In his absence they had voted a public thanks- 
giving of 50 days, and now lavished upon him the greatest 
honors they could devise. He was hailed "the father of his 
country," and saluted "Imperator"; he was to wear the tri- 
umphal robe on all public occasions ; he was nominated consul 
for ten years, and imperator for life ; his person was declared 
sacred ; statues of him were placed in the temples, and his por- 
trait struck on coins ; in his honor the month of his birth was 
called Julius ; one of his statues bore the inscription, " To the 
invincible god," in token that he was to be raised to the rank 
of the gods. His power equalled, perhaps excelled, that of 
any monarch who ever reigned ; yet though he coveted, he 

1 Pope Gregory XIII. enacted a further correction of the calendar in 
A.D. 1582, which is called the Gregorian. 



96 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

did not dare to assume, the regal title, or its badge, the 
crown. 

For five centuries the Roman people had nursed an invincible 
hatred of kings, but the friends of Caesar felt that if that an- 
tipathy could be overcome, and Caesar be made king, the unity 
of the great Roman empire might be preserved and handed down 
to his successors. Such was doubtless the mind and purpose of 
Caesar, who embraced the opportunity of the great festival of the 
Lupercalia, which was celebrated in the presence of a vast 
Feb. 15, assemblage, to feel the pulse of the people. Arrayed in 
44 his triumphal robe he sat in a golden chair on the Rostra 
of the Forum, witnessing the ceremonies, when Mark Antony, 
his friend and colleague in the consulship, made his way to him, 
and offered him a diadem wreathed with laurel. The people who 
witnessed the act stood by in anxious silence ; Caesar refused the 
crown, and the plaudits of the multitude filled the air ; Antony 
presented it again, and Caesar again rejected it amid the 3'et 
louder applause of the people, and ordered it to be taken to the 
Capitol. 

The public feeling, though a great disappointment to Caesar, 
was unmistakable. His enemie^ suspecting his design, made it 
the pretext of a conspiracy, wliich doubtless originated in per- 
sonal hatred. The prime mover was Cassius, whose hostility 
was purely personal ; Brutus, the nephew and son-in-law of Cato, 
on the other hand, may have joined the conspirators because he 
believed Caesar to be a tyrant, and an enemy to his countr}" ; 
most of the others, however, appear to have been actuated by 
part}^ hatred. Brutus could not have had a personal motive, 
for Caesar honored him with his friendship and partiality. On 
his last return from Spain he rode with Anton}^ and Octavius in 
Caesar's carriage ; he had received substantial marks of that 
favor in the enjoyment of lucrative and honorable offices, and in 
the will of Caesar he was named as one of his heirs. It is im- 
possible to exonerate him from the guilt of foul ingratitude and 
base treachery. 



44.] JULIUS C^SAR. 97 

The friends of Cffisai* had chosen the ides, that is, the loth 
day, of March, for a second attempt of making him king, and 
the conspirators, more than 60 in number, had fixed upon the 
same day for his assassination. He had been warned of 
danger by his friends ; his wife, in consequence of an ill-omened 
dream, entreated him not to go to the Senate ; the soothsayer 
Spurinna, whohadforewarned him of great danger that threatened 
him on the ides of March, met him on the way to the Senate ; he 
called out to him, and said, laughing, " Well, the ides of March 
are come"; Spurinna replied, "Yes, the}^ are come, but they 
are not gone." A friend actually handed to him a paper, setting 
forth the details of the conspirac}^, with the words, "Caesar, 
read this alone and at once ; it contains matter of the ut- 
most importance and concern to you." He could not find 
time to read it, and held it in his hand when he entered the 
Senate.^ 

The senators rose in his honor. As he went to his chair, 
which stood near the statue of Pompey, the conspirators con- 
trived to surround him, and one of their number, Tillius Cim- 
ber, presented with great urgency a petition in favor of his 
exiled brother, which Caesar refused. Then Cimber, with both 
hands tore the toga off his neck, and Casca struck him there 
with his sword. Caesar turned upon him, and horror-struck, ex- 
claimed, "Villain! Casca! what dost thou mean?" He drew 
his sword, and bravely defended himself from the cowardly at- 
tack ; the blows fell thick and fast upon his face and breast ; 
he saw nothing but steel, and received nothing but wounds ; he 
held out until he saw Brutus wound him in a vital part, and sor- 
rowfully exclaiming in Greek, " And thou too, my son ! " drew 
the toga over .his face, and fell, pierced with twenty-three 
wounds, on the pedestal of Pompey's statue, and dyed it with 
his blood. 

The senators, paralyzed with terror, fled ; the conspirators 

1 See note, p. 99. 



98 ANCIENT HISTORY. [B.C. 

rushed forth to proclaim their atrocious deed, which Brutus the 
next day sought to justify. The Senate decreed to Caesar 
divine honors and a magnificent public funeral, and appointed 
Anton}' to deliver his funeral oration ; they also passed a gen- 
eral amnesty, and bestowed governments and honors on Brutus 
and his friends, imagining that their action had been wise and 
generally satisfactory. 

In this they were mistaken. When the will of Caesar had 
been read, and it was found that he had left a legacy to every 
Roman citizen, and the people beheld the mangled body in front 
of the Rostra, it was impossible to restrain them. The veterans, 
with torches, rushed forth and set fire to the bier ; the people 
tore up the benches, the tables, and the very doors, for a funeral 
pyre ; the women cast their ornaments, and the soldiers their 
arms, into the flames. Anton}^ increased the excitement of the 
infuriated people by lifting up the blood-stained toga and show- 
ing the rents which the daggers had made. Then snatching 
flaming brands from the pile, some went forth to set on fire 
the houses of the assassins, while others ranged the city to 
seize their persons and tear them in pieces. Many were slain 
at the time; Brutus and Cass,ius fled the country, but they 
were put to death. Trebonius was the first, and Cassius 
the last of the murderers of Caesar who perished by a violent 
death. 

Thus died, in the 56th 3'ear of his life, Julius Caesar, who, 
although the epithet " great " does not form part of his name, was 
not only the greatest of Romans, but the greatest man in anti- 
quity. His greatness extends alike to his military genius, and 
to his acknowledged proficiency in almost every department of 
intellectual life. He was an accomplished statesman, a wise 
law-giver, an eminent jurist, and a brilliant orator. He shone 
as an author in history, poetry, and astronomy, and was an ex- 
cellent linguist, mathematician, and architect. He was kind, 
affable, liberal, and magnanimous. His faults were, besides 
those of his age, ambition and vain glory, but his moral short- 



44.] JULIUS C^SAR. 99 

comings were covered by the dazzling brilliancy of his public 
virtues. 

REFERENCES. 

Besides the General Histories of Rome repeatedly named in former 
references, and the excellent article "Csesar" in Smith's "Dictionary," 
etc., consult Plutarch, " Julius Csesar " and " Pompey." The German 
work of Drumann, " History of Rome," contains the best account of 
his life, and Napoleon III.'s "Jules Cesar," avast amount of valuable 
information. 

NOTE. 

Caesar, being a sceptic, was free from the superstition of his age ; he 
disbelieved omens, and smiled at the credulity of others. Shortly 
before his death he was told that the horses which had carried him 
over the Rubicon refused food and shed tears. This was thought to 
be as ominous as the alleged exhumation of a brazen tablet from the 
tomb of Capys with an inscription importing that the exposure of his 
bones would be followed by the murder of a descendant of Julus, as 
the pretended flight of a wren with a twig of laurel into the Pompeian 
Curia, where it was torn to pieces by a number of other birds, and 
as the divine admonitions in the aspect of sacrifices. 

Csesar is known to have disregarded the last, yet such was his 
deference to public sentiment that in one of his triumphs he ascended 
on his knees the long flight of steps of the Capitol, in order that by 
this act of voluntary humility he might avert the wrath of the gods, 
who were believed to envy and punish the excessive prosperity of 
mortals. 




100 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D. 



272-337] CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 

More than forty emperors had ruled the Roman empire, 
when Constantine, after eighteen years of warfare for suprem- 
-, acy, ascended the throne. He was the eldest son of 
the emperor Constantius Chi or us, by his first wife 
Helena, and exposed in early life to peculiar trials, which 
are believed to have taught him the self-command, sagacity, 
and discretion for which he became famous. Glad to escape 
from the jealous observation of the emperor Galerius, he re- 
paired to his father, who was emperor of the "West, and accom- 
panied him on an expedition against the Picts in North Britain. 
His father, who died at York, was an excellent man, with the 
enviable reputation of having been a wise, kind, and just ruler, 
whose humanit}', moderation, and impartiality were praised by 
Pagans and Christians alike. 

There is little doubt that the^ample of his father, not less 
than that of his mother, influenced and shaped the course of 
Constantine in his treatment of the Christians ; for he not only 
protected them in his own dominions, but used his influence 
with Galerius and Maximin to stop the persecutions to which 
they were exposed iu the East. It is said, with how much truth 
one cannot tell, that on his march from Gaul into Italy, where 
Maxentius had seized the purple, he thought much on the sub- 
ject of religion, wondering which he should choose, that of the 
Pagans, or that of the Christians. Musing upon the terrible 
fate of so man}' of his predecessors who had worshipped many 
gods, and contrasting it with the happy life of his father, he 
felt that his father's God was the true God, and that he ought 
to worship Him. Under the spell of such thoughts and feelings 
he prayed for divine help and direction. 



272-337.] CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 101 

Suddenly, about noon, as the day was declining, he saw in 
the heavens, higher than the sun, a luminous appearance in the 
shape of a cross, and read in flaming letters the words: "In 
this conquer." That he saw it, or believed that he saw it, can- 
not be denied, for the historian who records the matter had the 
statement from the lips of Constantine himself, who swore that 
it was true. Of course his swearing did not establish the truth 
of his words, for it is a well-known fact that he was in the habit 
of swearing ; but the fact that the historian mentions this cir- 
cumstance proves that his record is true. The emperor, it is 
also known, was religiousl}' inclined, and reposed great faith in 
dreams and visions. When, therefore, in the night which fol- 
lowed, he saw in a dream the figure of Christ, carrying the same 
sign which he had seen in the sky, admonishing him to provide 
a standard, like the celestial pattern, to be carried as a token 
of victory before his army, he read therein an answer to his 
prayer, and forthwith commanded that thereafter the standard 
of the cross should displace the Roman eagles. 

That famous standard was called the Labarum, but why, I 
cannot tell, for the excellent reason that I do not know it my- 
self, and find myself in good and large company, for no one else 
seems to know it either. It is described as a long pike, inter- 
sected by a transversal beam ; on the top glittered a crown of 
gold, with the sacred monogram, expressive at once of the cross 
and of the first two letters of the name of Christ, spelled in 
Greek characters, that is, X and P. From the beam was sus- 
pended a sill?:en veil, embroidered with the images of the reign- 
ing monarch and his children. 

This was a tremendous change, for until then the cross had 
been a symbol loathsome and abhorrent to the Romans, sugges- 
tive of the guilt of criminals, who had suffered the penalty of 
the law in the painful and shameful torture of crucifixion. That 
same symbol now glittered on the helmets and shields of 
Constantine's warriors, and shone in the texture of their 
banners. 



102 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D. 

The battle of the Milvian Bridge, in which Constantine routed 
Oct. 28, the army of Maxentius, and in which Maxentius himself 
312 found a watery grave in the Tiber, was fought under that 
banner, the first of a series of victories, which earned for Con- 
stantine the name of Victor, or Conqueror. 

It must not be thought, however, that he immediately gave 
up all connection with Paganism, which was still very strong in 
the world, and especially at Rome. So when a triumphal arch 
was set up to commemorate the victory of the Milvian Bridge, 
it bore the inscription, that it was due to Providence and to his 
genius. In that way he tried not to offend the pagan priests 
and the people. He was 3'et halting between two opinions and 
seeking to please everybody. On his coins he had put on the 
one side the name of Christ, and on the other the figure of the 
Sun-god. 

After a while, however, he became a more pronounced fol- 
-| lower of Christ, and resolved to build a new city in the 
Eastern part of the vast empire of which he had become 
sole ruler. That new capital was destined to be a bulwark 
against the Persians and the Goths, who were threatening his 
dominions, and to become a Chr^istian city even more splendid 
and magnificent than Rome, the pagan capital of the West. 

In his choice of a suitable site, the legend says, he was 
divinely directed. As he stood undecided, an eagle soared on 
high and marked the spot. He dreamt also, as he slept in 
Byzantium, that the venerable guardian deity of the place came 
to him as an ancient matron bent under the infirmity of years, 
and was suddenly changed into a youthful maiden, whom he 
adorned with all the symbols of imperial splendor. He awoke, 
and knew that Old Byzantium was to become the New Rome, 
the city to be known as his own city, as Constantinople, that 
is, the City of Constantine. 

Byzantium could boast an antiquity of more than three cen- 
turies, and trace its origin to the direction of the oracle that the 
founders should build it opposite to the land of the blind. But 



312-324.] CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 103 

it could boast more, for its position was incomparable ; it com- 
manded the shores of two continents, and united the advan- 
tages of security and facilities for commerce with the choicest 
gifts of nature and the most strikingly picturesque scenery. 

That ancient and pagan city was destined to be enriched with 
imperial splendor and enlarged to the dimensions worthy of the 
capital of the great Roman empire. On the day fixed for its 
birthday, Constantine himself, with a spear in his hand, led the 
solemn procession and traced the boundary line along an im- 
mense circuit. As he did not pause, the attendants, amazed at 
the vast area already enclosed, asked him how far he intended 
to go. The emperor replied : " I shall go on till He who guides 
me stops." It is undoubtedly true that he did say, that he 
built Constantinople by Divine command. 

The walls of Constantine extended from the Sea of Marmora 
to the Euxine. An imperial palace, thirteen other palaces, four- 
teen churches, numerous public buildings, and more than 4000 
superior private dwellings sprang up, as if by magic, at an 
almost incredible expense ; the amount appropriated for the 
building of the walls, the porticos, and the aqueducts was about 
twelve and a half millions of dollars. Many of the heathen 
temples were converted into Christian churches, the city was 
consecrated to Christ, and the statues of Helena his mother, and 
of Constantine, carried in their hands the Christian symbol of 
the cross. 

But even then heathenish notions that possessed his mind 
found expression in the construction, by his order, of his own 
statue, of gilt wood, set up on a triumphal car, which was led 
in solemn procession through the Hippodrome, to which the 
people, and afterwards, on the anniversary of the city's birthday, 
also the reigning emperor, paid the homage of adoration. He 
also set up in the centre of the Forum a lofty column, surmounted, 
more than 120 feet from the ground, by a colossal statue of 
Apollo, which had been transported either from Athens or else- 
where. It was of bronze, and represented the god of the day, 



104 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D 

or, as it was afterwards interpreted, the emperor himself, with 
the sceptre in his right hand, and the globe of the world in his 
left, while a crown of rays, formed of the nails of the Passion, 
glittered on his head. 

The dedication of the city took place a.d. 330, and though by 
an edict engraved on a marble column, it received the title of 
Second or New Rome, the name of Constantinople has prevailed 
over it. 

Among the most important events of his reign is the Great 
-, Church Council of Nicsea, over which he presided, and in 
which was set forth the confession of belief, known as 
the Creed. His interest in the Christian religion was undoubt- 
edly great, and he even often preached to thousands of hearers, 
who by general invitation had flocked to the palace. He stood 
erect, and poured forth his sermon with a grave voice and a 
solemn face. Now and then the audience cheered him, when he 
would point upwards, bidding them by that gesture give glory 
to God, and not to himself. But he was not always so gentle ; 
for on one occasion, desirous of rebuking those who, though 
they cheered his sentiments, failed to put them to practice, he 
seized one of his courtiers, noted for rapacity, and drawing on 
the ground with his spear the figure of a man, said to him, "In 
this space is contained all that you will carry with you after 
death." 

On the eve of an expedition against Sapor H. , king of Persia, 
he fell sick, and went to Helenopolis for the mineral waters. 
Until then he had not been baptized, but now craved that sac- 
rament. In the palace of the suburb of Nicomedia he laid aside 
the purple, and was clothed in white ; the couch on which he 
lay was covered with white also, and the bishop Eusebius came 
-, in and baptized him. That happened in Easter week ; 
on Whitsun-Day at noon he died. His body was laid 
out in a coffin of gold, and borne to the palace at Constantino- 
ple, where for the space of three months it lay in state. Euse- 
bius had placed in the dead man's hand his will, which was to 



325-327.] CONSTANTINE THE GREAT. 105 

be given to his son Constantius, who was away. It is said to 
have expressed the emperor's belief that his brothers and their 
children had poisoned him, and to have bidden Constantius to 
avenge his death. The result was the massacre of six imperial 
princes, and the flight of two others. 

To the Church of the Apostles, the mausoleum provided by 
himself, his body was borne and laid to rest in a sarcophagus of 
porphyry. In that church the Byzantine emperors lay in impe- 
rial state until their coffins were rifled, and their bodies cast out 
in the Fourth Crusade. A sarcophagus, called ' ' of Constantine," 
is preserved in the Museum in the Seraglio. 

Constantine was a remarkable man, and both as a conqueror 
and a ruler deserves the name of Great. He made Christianity 
the religion of the empire, but tolerated Paganism. He was 
superstitious, and in the latter years of his life jealous and vin- 
dictive. By his order his own son Crispus was put to death 
either by the sword or by poison, and Fausta, his wife, suffo- 
cated in a bath. In many things he deserves neither the admi- 
ration nor the imitation of mankind. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon, " Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Milman's edition, 
vol. n.; Stanley, "History of the Eastern Church," N'.Y. 1862, pp. 
282-317. Smith, " Dictionary," etc., under " Constantine." 

NOTE. 

The land of the blind, opposite to Byzantium, designates the city of 
Chalcedon, whose founders having the choice of two sites, were blind 
to the superior advantages of the site of Byzantium, which was 
founded seventeen years after the settlement of then- own city. 
Herod. IV. 144. 




106 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D. 



Reigns from 



KEIGNS FROM ATT'TTT A 

434-454] AlllLA. 



The Huns in ancient times ranged over the vast tracts of 
Central Asia extending from the Volga eastward to the Pacific ; 
they were the terror of the nations of Asia, and especially of the 
Chinese, who, as early as about two and a half centuries before 
the Christian era, constructed a wall, from twenty to twenty-five 
feet high and fifteen hundred miles in length, against their in- 
roads. In those early days the Chinese were tributary to them ; 
they had to pay every year not only money and silk, but were 
required to send also a chosen band of their fairest daughters to 
become the wives of the fierce and uglyHunnish chiefs. There 
are still extant the verses of a Chinese princess who bewails her 
sad lot as such a wife, condemned to have sour milk for her only 
drink, raw flesh for her only food, and a tent for her only palace, 
and wishing herself a bird that she might fly back to her dear 
country and loved home. - ^ 

The Huns were so ugly that they were regarded to be the 
offspring of witches and fiends. Their forms were strong and 
muscular, rather below than of a middle size. Their shoulders 
were broad, their necks short and thick ; their foreheads narrow, 
their noses flat ; they had small, black, and piercing eyes, deeply 
buried in the head ; thin, black, slanting eyebrows, long and 
protruding ears, large mouths, and hardly any beard. They 
made their appearance still more repulsive b}^ gashing their 
cheeks, partly to terrify their enemies by such unsightly scars, 
and partly to prevent the growth of the beard. In summer they 
wore linen smocks, in winter the skins of beasts ; they wrapped 
goat-skins round their limbs, wore rough shoes of monstrous 
size, and huge fur caps. They did not prepare their food by 
means of fire ; they ate herbs, roots, and berries as they grew, 



374-375.] ATTILA. 107 

and raw flesh made mellow by being placed as a saddle on their 
horses. Besides tents they had only rude huts covered with 
reeds. They almost lived on horseback, they ate and slept there, 
and even attended public assemblies on their horses. Warfare 
was their life and their delight. They surprised the enemy by 
rushing upon him like a whirlwind, with terrible yells ; then 
the}' scattered with amazing speed in all directions, but as 
quickly returned to the assault with irresistible fury. At a 
distance they employed arrows and spears tipped with sharp- 
ened bones ; in close combat they used the sword, and held 
in readiness a lasso with which they caught, and dragged after 
them, those who had escaped their sword. On the march an 
innumerable multitude of carts, with their wives and children, 
followed their army. 

Towards the close of the fourth century the Chinese had van- 
quished the Huns, and compelled them to leave their p 
ancient haunts in Central Asia. Seeking a new home 
the}' moved in prodigious numbers westward, crossed r- 
the Volga, and encountered in the plains between that 
river and the Don the Alani, who joined them. Then the Huns 
and the Alani amalgamated and passed over the Don, where 
they overwhelmed the Ostrogoths, separated from the Visigoths 
by the river Dniester. The victorious Huns then crossed that 
river also, and forced the Visigoths to leave their country to 
find a new home beyond the Danube under the protection of 
Valens, the Roman emperor of the East, while some, led by 
Athanaric their king, escaped into the mountainous country of 
Caucaland, or Transylvania. The Huns, the Alani, and the 
Ostrogoths together pushed farther westward and established 
themselves in Hungary and Southern Russia. The violent 
impulse given by these colossal movements in Eastern Europe 
was also felt in Western Europe, and for the space of about 
two centuries disturbed the peace and repose of the p _ 
whole continent. It is known in history as the 
Great Migration of Nations. 



108 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D. 

During that time the emperor Theodosius, upon his death, 
1 divided the Roman empire into two parts. Of his two 

sons, Honorius, the younger, became emperor of the 

West, and his dominions embraced parts of North Africa, 

-| Italy, Spain, Gaul, and Britain. Rome was its capital, 

and this empire lasted about a century longer. Arcadius, 

his elder son, became emperor of the East, and his dominion 

extended over Egypt, parts of Asia, Greece, and Macedonia. 

-| Its capital was Constantinople, and it continued until 

the capture of that city by Mohammed II. 
About 70 years after the establishment of the Huns and their 
-1 allies in the region of Hungary and Russia, Attila became 

their king. He was a true Hun for ugliness, small of 
stature, but as strong in body as he was firm of will. His step 
was haught}' and defiant, and when he fiercely rolled his small 
and piercing eyes, he filled with terror those who saw him. His 
capital, or rather his camp, was in the plains of Upper Hungary, 
between the Theiss and the Danube. Within the enclosure of 
a lofty wooden wall, or palisade of square, smooth timber, lay 
his village of wooden dwellings. His house, also built of wood, 
was commodious and adorned with rude magnificence. The 
room of his queen, at least, had a carpeted floor. His dress, 
his arms, and the trappings of his horse were plain and of one 
color. Though the other Huns were fond of displaying on their 
tables the gold and silver plate of which they had spoiled their 
enemies, the table of Attila was served in wooden cups and 
platters ; flesh was his only food, and he never tasted bread. 

In that village of the wilderness the heathen potentate received 
ambassadors from the most distant regions, who came to court 
his favor, even from Rome and Constantinople. Silent and 
stern, or fiercely angry, he sat in a wooden chair, and amazed 
the ambassadors of the emperor with the question: "What 
fortress, what cit}^ in the wide extent of the Roman empire, 
can hope to exist, secure and impregnable, if it is our pleasure 
that it should be erased from the earth? " 



375-450.] ATTILA. 109 

At a banquet to which they were invited, two Scythian min- 
strels rehearsed in glowing verse the valor and the victories 
of Attila, which animated the martial enthusiasm of the rude 
warriors, while the performances of two buffoons excited their 
mirth. 

His empire was immense, and extended from the confines of 
Gaul to those of China. 

One day a shepherd found in the ground an old sword, which 
he presented to Attila, who declared that it was the sword of 
the Scythian god of war, the possession of which rendered the 
owner invincible. This the Huns readily believed, and saw 
further confirmation of their belief in the death, or more cor- 
rectly, in the murder, of Bleda, the king's brother. The terror 
with which he filled his subjects, who trembled to lift their eyes 
to the divine majesty of the invincible king, spread also among 
the nations of Christendom whom he sought to impress with the 
idea that he was the terrible Antichrist, and the savage cruelty 
of this bloodthirsty conqueror has earned for him, by common 
consent, the dreadful surname of Godegisel, that is, the Scourge 
of God. 

The story of his ravage of the country from the Adriatic to 
the Black Sea was long remembered ; where his Huns had been, 
destruction and desolation remained, and not less than 70 cities 
of the Eastern empire lay in ruins. He was virtually the 
master of that empire, who of his clemency compelled the 
nominal ruler to submit to the most harsh and humiliating con- 
ditions of peace. 

Then followed, on various pretexts, his invasion of Western 
Europe at the head of half a million of warriors, who left 
destruction in their path through Austria and Germany to the 
confluence of the Neckar and the Rhine. The cities were 
reduced to ashes, and the people put to the sword. Thus he 
entered Gaul, it is believed, by the way of Strassburg, and 
marched upon Orleans. An obstinate siege ensued ; the Huns 
had shaken the walls with their battering rams, and mastered the 



110 ANCIENT HISTORY. [A.D. 

suburbs; such of the people^ as were unable to bear arms, lay 
prostrate in prayer to God for help ; then in the hour of their 
supreme distress, the good bishop Anianus saw from the rampart 
a small cloud in the distance, and cheered the brave defenders with 
the glad tidings that it was the help of God. The cloud grew 
larger and came nearer, a strong breeze scattered the dust, the 
Roman and Gothic banners were seen, and the mighty host of 
Aetius and Theodoric came to relieve the stronghold of Orleans. 

Attila at once raised the siege, and ordered his army to 
retreat to the Cataulanian fields, a vast plain in the neighbor- 
hood of Chalons ; the Romans pressed hard upon the Huns, 
-| and compelled them to give battle. The contest was 
terrific and fatal to the Huns. The battle raged all da}', 
the blood of more than 250,000 slain ran in torrents, and legend 
says, caused a small stream to rise so high that it swept awa^- 
their bodies. Had the Romans been able to push their advan- 
tage, they might have annihilated the army of Attila. As it 
was, Attila had prepared for the worst, and ordered the saddles 
of his cavalry to be reared into a funeral pile, to be set on fire 
if his intrenchments should be forced, it being his purpose to 
rush into the flames, rather than fall dead or alive into the 
hands of the enemy. 

Attila returned to Hungary, and as soon as he had recruited 
his forces, set out for Italy to fetch Honoria, the emperor's 
sister, as his bride, and to take possession of her dowry, the 
dominion of the Western empire. He passed the Alps and 
besieged Aquileia with a multitude of barbarians. After a 
three months' inefl"ectual siege, the want of provisions and the 
clamors of his army induced Attila to order a retreat. On the 
day before, he rode, gloomy and angry at his failure, round the 
walls, and noticed a stork with her young leave her nest and 
-| fly to the country. This, he told his warriors, was an 
omen of victory ; the siege was renewed ; a large breach 
was made in that part of the wall where the stork had had her 
nest, through which myriads of Huns poured in, and, with irre- 



451-453.] ATTILA. HI 

sistible fury demolished the place so absolutel}', that the next 
generation could hardly find the ruins. 

He overran and ravaged the greater part of Lombardy. 
Many of the people fled and found a safe refuge in the islands 
of the Adriatic, where they founded the city of Venice. 

In his progress, Attila had pitched his camp on the Mincio, 
preparatory" to a march upon Rome, when there appeared before 
him a distinguished Roman embassy, in the persons of Avienus, 
and Leo the Great, then bishop of Rome. His wise and elo- 
quent appeals touched the heart of Attila, who perhaps from 
superstitious fear of the consequences of an attack on the city of 
Rome, or influenced by the ravages of disease resulting from 
the excesses of his soldiers, yielded to Leo's entreaties, agreed 
to an armistice, but threatened to return if Honoria, his impe- 
rial bride, were not delivered to his ambassadors at the time 
stated in the treaty. 

Then, laden with the rich spoil of more than a hundred cities, 
Attila and his hordes retraced their march to Hungary. 

Meanwhile, Attila, who, like other Asiatics, practised polyg- 
amj' , had led home to his wooden palace beyond the Danube 
another wife, the beautiful Ildico, or Hildegund. The marriage 
was celebrated with barbaric splendor amidst the boisterous 
rejoicings of the camp. Alarmed by the failure of Attila to 
appear amongst them, they repaired to his palace, and tried to 
awaken him by martial cries. But as he did not respond, they 
forced their way to the royal apartment, where they found the 
bride veiled, sitting before the corpse of Attila. He had r 
burst an artery. 

The Huns were paralyzed with terror and sorrow. They laid 
him in state under a silken pavilion set up in the midst of the 
plain. Chosen squadrons of horse wheeled round and chanted 
a wild funeral song. They cut off their hair, gashed their faces 
with unsightly wounds, and rehearsed the praises of the dead 
hero, who glorious in life, invincible in death, had been the 
father of his people, the scourge of his enemies, and the terror 



112 ANCIENT HISTORY. 

of the world. The remains were placed in three coffins, of gold, 
silver, and iron, and privately buried during the night ; his 
weapons and precious spoil were cast into his grave ; the cap- 
tives who had dug it, they forced to absolute reticence as to the 
place of his burial, for they were massacred on the spot; 
and then they kept with boisterous mirth the funeral feast. 

Such was the end of Attila, whose name was the terror of the 
nations, and whose empire had extended from the frontier of 
China to the Atlantic Ocean. His death was hailed as a uni- 
versal blessing. The emperor Marcian, according to legend, 
beheld in a dream, on the auspicious night of the event, the 
broken bow of Attila, and breathed freely. 

The huge and disjointed fabric of his empire fell into pieces. 
The subdued nations sliook off the hated and galling yoke of the 
Huns, who under the contentions of numerous claimants to the 
inheritance of Attila gradually destroyed one another, and a 
new flood of other barbarians of the North finally extinguished 
the empire of the Huns. 

The rise and fall of the Huns had been instrumental in the 
fall of the Western empire. The last emperor, Augustulus, 
disgraced the name of the first king, and of the first emperor of 
Rome. Odoacer, a Rugian, had^ risen in the imperial guard at 
-| Rome, and been prominent in the support of Orestes, 
when he caused his son Romulus Augustulus to be chosen 
emperor. For that service the barbarians demanded to be re- 
warded with the third of the soil of Italy, to be divided among 
them. Orestes refusing their demand, Odoacer bade the mal- 
contents joiil his standard, as the surest and easiest road to the 
accomplishment of their purpose. So Odoacer went to war 
against Orestes and shut him up in Pavia ; he besieged the 
place and took it by storm ; the town was pillaged and Orestes 
put to death ; in an action near Ravenna, Paul, the brother of 
-| Orestes, was slain, and Odoacer, as victor, deposed the 
helpless Augustulus, gave him a castle in Lower Italy, 
and soon after assumed the style and title of " King of Italy." 



CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY. 113 

Thus ended the Roman empire. The fall of the Western 
emph-e is the last event recorded in Ancient History. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," Milman's 
edition, vol. III. ; Smith, "Dictionary," etc., under "Attila," which 
gives also an account of important collateral literature; Creasy, 
"Fifteen Decisive Battles." German students will find much and 
interesting information of Attila in the Nihelungen Lied. 

CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

The dates of events in Grecian History anterior to B.C. 776 are 
uncertain and conjectural. That year is the era of the Greeks, from 
which they measured time by Olympiads, or periods of four years. 
The first authentic Olympiad is known as that of Coroebus the Elean, 
who gained the prize in the foot-race at the Olympic games celebrated 
in the year B.C. 776. The games were celebrated every five years, 
and the period of four years which elapsed between two successive 
celebrations of the great national festival was called an Olympiad. 

The Koman historians measured time from the year of the founda- 
tion of the city, expressed by the letters A.U.C., that is, ab urhe 
condita, in English, "from the foundation of the city," placed by M. 
Terentius Verro on the 21st of April in the third year of the sixth 
Olympiad, that is, B.C. 753. 

Modern writers follow the more convenient method of calculating 
events by the year before Christ, expressed by the letters B.C., and 
after Christ, as expressed by the letters A.D. 



Ancient History, 

B.C. 1261? Hercules. 

776 ? Lycurgus. First Olympiad. 

753. Romulus. Rome founded. 

594. Solon archon and legislator at Athens. 

509. Expulsion of the Tarquins. Death of Junius Brutus. 

490. Miltiades. Battle of Marathon. 

480. Leonidas. Thermopylae. 



114 ANCIENT HISTORY, 

B.C. 480. Themistocles. Salamis. 
444. Pericles. 

439. Athens at the height of its glory. 
431-404. The Peloponnesiaii War. 
404. Death of Alcibiades. 
399. Death of Socrates. 
356. Birth of Alexander the Great. 

336. Assassination of Philip, and accession of Alexander. 
323. Death of Alexander. 
264-241. First Punic War. 

Duilius and Regulus. 
218-201. Second Punic War. 
Hannibal. 
183. Death of Hannibal. 
149-146. Third Punic War. 

Scipio Afi'icanus Junior. 
146. Destruction of Carthage. 
60. The First Triumvirate. 

Pompey. Caesar. Crassus. 
44. Murder of Csesar on the ides of March. 
A.D. 272-337. Constantine the Great. 

325. The First General Council of Nice. 

330. Constantinople becomes the capital of the Roman 

empire. -_-^ 

434. Attila and Bleda become kings of the Huns. 
444. Attila, sole king. 

451. Defeat of Attila on the Cataulanian Fields. 
453. Death of Attila. 
476. Odoacer, king of Italy. 

Fall of the Western empire. 



II. MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



11. 
MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 

JUSTINIAN. [483-565 

In the fifth year of the reign of Justinian the terrible sedi- 
tion, known as the Nika, that is, ' ' Vanquish," broke out at p 
Constantinople. There were two factions in the Circus, 
or Hippodrome, called from the colors they wore, the Blues and 
the Greens, which gave their names to two strong and irrecon- 
cilable political parties. The people were divided in their at- 
tachment, and even the court favored this or that side. The 
outburst of the sedition was extremely violent, the city was in 
flames, murder raged in the streets, a counter-emperor was 
elected, and Justinian contemplated flight. After it had raged 
for five days, the tumult was suppressed by the savage energy 
of Belisarius, who entered the Hippodrome with 3,000 veterans, 
and caused the indiscriminate massacre of 30,000 persons. 

After the suppression of the Nika, the emperor began to 
think of conquest. He dispatched Belisarius with an army of 
15,000 into North Africa to recover from the Vandals r .^^ 
the province which about a century before they had 
wrested from the "Western empire, on the plea, that the East- 
ern empire, as heir of the Western, might urge a lawful claim. 

When Belisarius went into Africa, Gelimer was king of the 
Vandals, who, after three generations in the luxurious prosperity 
of a warm climate, had become too weak to resist the impetuous 



116 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

assault of the Romans, who entered the city of Carthage 
-| amid the acclamations of her people. Gelimer was com- 
pelled to flee to the mountains of Numidia, and entered 
the strong and inaccessible place of Papua. Pharas, an officer 
of Belisarius, laid siege to the place, trusting to conquer by 
famine the resolute obstinacy of the king, who, in the ex- 
tremity of his distress, wrote a letter to the humane Pharas, in 
which he begged him to send him a harp, a sponge, and a loaf 
of bread ; the harp, to sing to it the story of his sorrows ; the 
sponge, to dry up his tears ; and the loaf, to still his hunger. 
His request was granted, but the severity of the siege was not 
relaxed, and Gelimer was forced to surrender. Belisarius led 
him in triumph to Constantinople, and the king of the Vandals 
drew comfort from repeating on that humiliating occasion the 
-J words of the wise king, ' ' Vanity of vanities ! All is 
vanity ! " Thus ended the kingdom of the Vandals, and 
became a province of the Eastern empire. 

Encouraged by the brilliant success of the African expedi- 

-, tion, Justinian in the next year undertook the task of 
535 

expelling from Italy the Ostrogoths, who, upon the de- 
feat of Odoacer, had established themselves in the Peninsula, 
and, under the victorious lead of Theodoric, founded an empire 
which extended from Sicily to the Danube, and from Sirmium 
to the Atlantic. 

Belisarius with an army of 7,000 invaded and subdued Sicily, 
and speedily entered Italy. The smaller towns of Lower Ital^^ 
offered no resistance. Naples was carried by storm, and Rome, 
-| glad of the departure of the Goths, opened her gates to 
the victorious lieutenant of Justinian. 
The Goths, however, had not departed for good, but returned 
and besieged the city with a colossal army for more than a 3^ear, 
during which not less than one-third of their number was de- 
stroyed in frequent and bloody combats. The genius of Beli- 
sarius finally compelled them to raise the siege, and Vitiges 
their king to seek the shelter of the walls and morasses of 



533-565.] JUSTINIAN. 117 

Ravenna. In that impregnable stronghold he might have in- 
definitely protracted the struggle, but he consented to capitu- 
late and join Belisarias on his return to Constantinople, to 
which envy, under the thinly veiled pretext of necessity, had 
summoned him. "The remnant of the Gothic war," said the 
official letter of recall, " was no longer worthy of his presence : 
a gracious sovereign was impatient to reward his service, and 
to consult his wisdom ; and he alone was capable of defending 
the East against the innumerable armies of Persia." 

The departure of Belisarius was the signal of a tumultuous 
rising of the Ostrogoths so strong and vital that they speedily 
recovered almost the whole of Italy under the lead of the 
youthful Totila, a name which in the Gothic tongue signifies 
deathless. Even Rome had fallen ; her walls had been p 
razed, and her inhabitants expelled. 

The incompetency of the Roman generals induced the suspi- 
cious Justinian to intrust the conduct of the Gothic war to 
Belisarius ; but the army placed under his command was insuffi- 
cient, and after five years of ineffectual warfare, which, however 
shed the lustre of consummate skill on his generalship, he r- 
craved and obtained leave to return to Constantinople. 

Once more, after the lapse of ten 3'ears, Belisarius triumphed 
b}^ his skill over the Bulgarians, who had threatened the capi- 
tal. In consequence of the false charge of his share in a con- 
spiracy against the life of Justinian, the veteran hero was 
deprived of his fortune, and confined a prisoner in his own 
house for the space of six months. The establishment of his 
innocence restored him to freedom and honor, but he p 
died soon after, and the ungrateful emperor rewarded his 
long, faithful, and glorious service not with a monument worthy 
of his fame, but with the confiscation of his property. 

The story that he was deprived of sight, and wandered 
through the streets of Constantinople, begging, "Give a penn}^ 
to Belisarius the general ! " is a poetical myth, possibly designed 
to set forth the oiarino; ino-ratitude of Justinian. 



118 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

After the recall of Belisarius, Narses at the head of a pow- 
erful army was sent to Italy. Though small in stature, and of 
a feeble frame, he was a man of great intellectual strength 
and military skill. On the field of Taginse he met the Goths, 
-| and defeated them; 6,000 of their number were slain 
without merc}', among them the brave and heroic Totila. 
The Goths carried off his body, but the Romans sent his jew- 
elled hat and his blood-stained robe to Justinian as tokens of 
victory. 

Narses entered Rome, but soon set out to meet the Goths, 
-, who led by Teias, their newly chosen king, were assem- 
bled in force at Cumse. A terrible and decisive battle 
was fought. The courage of the Goths was prodigious, and 
the conduct of Teias brilliantly heroic. Like another Leonidas 
he stood with a lance in his right hand, and a buckler in his 
left, slaying the foremost of his assailants with the one, and 
warding off the blows that rained upon him, with the other. 
The weight of twelve javelins which hung from his buckler, 
after a combat of many hours, had fatigued his left arm, a;^d 
he called, without suspending his blows, for another buckler. 
In the change, a mortal dart 'en1:ered his side, and he fell. His 
death inflamed the Goths to more desperate resistance, and 
they held out until the evening of the second day. On the 
morning of the third, convinced " that heaven had not destined 
them to rule Italy," they accepted the honorable terms proposed 
by Narses, either to remain in Italy as the soldiers and subjects 
of Justinian, or to depart with part of their private possessions 
to another country. 

-, The last remnants of the Goths were subdued in the 
554 I 

following year, when the overthrow of the Gothic mon- 
archy was completed, and Italy was debased into a province of 
the Eastern empire. The province was called the Exarchate, and 
the throne of the Gothic kings was filled by the exarchs of 
Ravenna. Narses, the first and most powerful of the exarchs, 
governed the entire kingdom of Italy for fifteen years. 



529-565.] JUSTINIAN. 119 

His administration, though strong and effective, could not 
shield him from the effects of his avarice and oppression, p 
The fear of a revolt gave color to the efforts of his ene- 
mies, who procured from Justin II., the nephew and successor of 
Justinian, his removal from office. The story runs that the man- 
date of his recall contained the insulting message of the empress, 
' ' he might return to the distaff as better suited to him than the 
exercise of arms," which drew from him the indignant reply, 
" I will spin her such a thread as she shall not easily unravel." 
He did not return to Constantinople, but went to Naples, and, 
although at the instance of the pope he made his peace with 
the emperor, he is credited with having invited the Lombards to 
invade Italy. 

The emperor Justinian died a.d. 565. As a man he was the 
superior of most of the emperors in many private and p 
public virtues, which would have yet been greater but 
for the influence of Theodora his wife, whom he raised from the 
dubious notoriety of a theatrical life to the imperial throne. 
Always ambitious, fond of admiration, and the dupe of flat- 
terers, he became towards the end of his life not only avaricious, 
but jealous and exacting. He was not a soldier, but owed his 
conquests to the genius of Belisarius, to whom he meted out the 
reward of base and heartless ingratitude. Those conquests 
have crumbled into dust, but he has achieved more lasting fame 
by his merits in the reformation of the laws. 

He commissioned Tribonian, his minister, to frame a new 
Code of laws from the imperial constitutions, to collect p 
the commentaries of those laws by the most learned 
lawyers, known as the Pandects^ and to set forth a systematic 
treatise on the laws, called the Institutes. These three 
great works, the Code., the Pandects., and the Institutes., 
were set forth as the Law of the Empire, and form what is 
called the Corpus Juris., that is, the Body, or Collection of the 
Laws. 

In his reign were also executed many extensive public works, 



120 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

such as vast lines of fortifications, numerous bridges, aqueducts, 
hospitals, and churches, throughout the various provinces of his 
empire. Perhaps the most celebrated of all the buildings hv- 
erected is the cathedral of St. Sophia at Constantinople, which, 
converted by the Turks into a mosque, remains, at least in part, 
as a standing monument of his imperial magnificence. Ten 
thousand workmen were engaged in its erection for six years. 
When, on the day of its consecration, Justinian beheld it in the 
splendor of its glory, he exclaimed with devout vanity, "I 
have vanquished thee, O Solomon ! " 

His reign is also distinguished by the introduction of the silk 
industry into Europe. Until then the manufactured article was 
brought by caravans from the far East, and commanded a price 
equal to its weight in gold. During his wars with Persia the 
supply was entirely suspended, and various plans for obtaining 
the fabric were under consideration, when there arrived at Con- 
stantinople two Persian monks, who had been in China, and felt 
confident, from what they had observed, that although the im- 
portation of the silkworm was impracticable, that of their eggs 
presented no difficulties. The emperor encouraged their views, 
and at his bidding the monks uuderwent the perilous venture of 
a second visit to China. They deceived the natives as to the 
real purport of their journey by concealing the coveted eggs in 
hollow canes, and returned with them in safety. Under their 
direction, in due time, they were artificially hatched, and fed on 
mulberry leaves. The insects throve and multiplied, trees also 
were planted for their benefit, and in the next reign, Eastern 
ambassadors acknowledged that the O reeks were not inferior 
to the Chinese in the culture of the insects, and the manufacture 
of silk. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon, "Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," vol. IV. pp. 
41-386, Boston ed. 1854 ; Milman, " Latin Christianity," vol. I. pp. 
449 to end, ed. N.Y. 1860. 



483-565.] JUSTINIAN. 121 

NOTE. 

Belisarius. The account of the disgrace and restoration of Belisar 
rius given in the text agrees with the genuine original account con- 
tained in the Fragment of John Malala (vol. II. pp. 234-243), and 
the Chronicle of Theophanes (pp. 194-204). 

The revival of the fable by Lord Mahon, in his Life of Belisarius, 
rests on the dubious authority of an unquoted anonymous writer of 
the eleventh century and of Tzetzes of the twelfth century. 

The theory of Alemannus, adopted by Le Beau, and favored by 
IMilman, that the case of Belisarius was confounded with that of John 
of Cappadocia, who was thus reduced to beggary, commends itself to 
m}'' judgment. 

A statue in the Villa Borghese at Rome, in a sitting posture, with 
an open hand, which is often described as representing Belisarius, is 
in the judgment of AVinckelraann, one of the most competent art 
critics, that of Augustus in the act of propitiating ISTemesis. See 
Suetonius "m August.'' c. 91, and AVinckelmann, "Hist, de I'Art," vol. 
in. p. 266. 

The French romance of M. de Marmontel repeats the fabulous 
account, and Madame de Genlis in her charming " Belisaire " makes 
Narses the author of her hero's blindness, although she gives m a note 
a summary of the true history. 

The celebrated painting of Van Dyck, which used to be in the duke 
of Devonshire's Gallery at Chiswick, represents Belisarius in a sitting 
posture, attended by a youthful guide, holding up his helmet as an 
alms-basin, while a soldier sadly gazes upon the melancholy fate of 
his old general. 







122 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 



569-632] MOHAMMED. 

The city of Mecca, in the peninsula of Arabia, was the birth- 
-| place of Mohammed. He was the only son of Abdallah 
and Amina. His father died when he was only two 
months old, and left him but five camels and an Ethiopic slave. 
The death of his mother, which occurred in his sixth year, made 
him a full orphan. His uncle, Abu Taleb, a respectable mer- 
chant, gave him a home, and brought him up with the intention 
of following mercantile pursuits. He was his companion on a 
business journe}^ into Syria. In his twenty-fifth year he entered 
into the service of Cadi j ah, the widow of a wealthy merchant, 
where his business capacity and fidelity so endeared him to his 
mistress that she gave him her hand and her fortune. 

The religion of the Arabs at that time was the paganism prev- 
alent in a large part of Asia, and consisted in the worship of 
the sun, the moon, and the fi^ed stars. They acknowledged 
one Supreme God, but paid divine honor to the heavenly 
bodies, to angels and their images, regarding them as inferior 
deities and their mediators with the most high God. But they 
were also idolaters and worshipped not only the statues of men, 
but images of animals, such as lions, horses, eagles, etc., and 
even stones. Some Arabs believed neither a creation past, nor 
a resurrection to come ; others believed both, and provided that 
when they died, their camel should be tied to their tomb and 
left to perish without food or drink, to accompany them to the 
other world, lest they should be obliged at the resurrection to 
go on foot. Some believed that the blood near a dead person's 
brain became a bird which once in a century visited his tomb, 
while others held that the soul of one unjustly slain entered into 



569-632.] MOHAMMED. 123 

that bird, which continually cries " Oscuni, Oscuni," that is, 
"Give me to drink," meaning the murderer's blood, till his 
death be avenged, and that then it would fly away. 

In and about the Caaba of Mecca were not less than 360 
idols ; there is no doubt that the cruel practice of human sacri- 
fices was long preserved among the Arabs, and tradition says 
that even Abdallah, the father of Mohammed, had been devoted 
to death, but ransomed by a hundred camels. 

The religious usages of the Arabs were as various as their 
tribes, who lived in perpetual feuds, and thus sapped the 
strength of the nation. The need of a savior and deliverer was 
universally felt, and Mohammed in musing on the low estate of 
his people and countr}^ deemed it to be his mission to raise them 
b}^ preaching to them the doctrine of one God. 

On his journeys, and at Mecca, where a great commercial fair 
was held, he had abundant opportunity to become acquainted 
with the faith and practice of the Jews and Christians, and 
reached the conclusion that the true religion had suffered at the 
hands of both. He resolved to restore the faith of Abraham, 
the patriarch and progenitor of the Arabs, and proclaim it as the 
only true religion. Abraham, being the father of Ishmael, from 
whom the Arabs claim descent, is their patriarch, and Mohammed 
was of the race of Ishmael. 

Mohammed was forty years old when he assumed the title of 

a prophet, and proclaimed his revelations. It had been his 

custom for many years to spend a month in the solitude of a cave 

in Mount Hara, not far from Mecca. It was there that r 

609 
the angel Gabriel appeared unto him and told him that 

he was appointed the apostle or prophet of God. This he told 
his wife, who received the news with great joy and told it her 
cousin, who shared her belief and enthusiasm. Other converts 
followed in the persons of Zeid, his purchased servant, whose 
faith he rewarded by giving him his freedom, and of his youth- 
ful cousin Ali, then only nine years old. His next convert was 
Abu Beer, a man of great authority among the Koreish, whose 



124 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

example was followed by six of the most influential men of 
Mecca. 

The mission of Mohammed was kept secret for three 3^ears, 
-, but announced to the world in the fourth year, on the 
occasion of a banquet at which about forty of his relatives 
appeared. After they had partaken of the lamb and the milk 
he had provided, Mohammed addressed them thus: "Friends 
and kinsmen, I offer you, and I alone can offer, the most pre- 
cious of gifts, the treasures of this world, and of the world to 
come. God has commanded me to call you to His service. 
Who among you will join me and become my brother, and 
vizier? " All were silent ; at last the boy Ali, then in his four- 
teenth year, arose, saying, "O prophet, I am the man," and 
threatened to destroy all who should oppose him. The braggart 
speech excited the derisive laughter of the company. 

Abu Taleb, the father of the youthful and belligerent Ali, 
tried to make Mohammed give up his foolish and dangerous 
purpose. But he was deaf to his counsels and entreaties, and 
cut them off by the declaration, that though they set the sun 
against him on his right hand, and the moon on his left, they 
would not divert him from his course. 

In the seventh year of his miission he had to mourn the death 

-, of Abu Taleb, and of Cadi j ah his wife. Deprived of 

their support, Mohammed had now to face the opposition 

of powerful and fanatical enemies, and to recruit his converts 

from the strangers, who on mercantile or religious errands were 

wont to flock to Mecca in great numbers. 

The tribe of the Koreish, to which he belonged, was bitterly 
hostile to him. They were the rulers of Mecca, and had the 
custody of the Caaba ^ the most venerable sanctuary of the 
pagan Arabs, where among numerous other objects of worship, 
was preserved the black stone, which was said to have been 
sent by God from heaven. The Koreishites, who drew a large 
revenue from the Caaba ^ dreaded the rise of the new movement 
as hostile to the old idolatrous religion, and dangerous to their 



612-622.] MOHAMMED. 125 

interest. They saw in every new convert to the religion of 
Mohammed a renewed cause of their hatred and enmity, which 
at last became so violent that he was compelled to leave Mecca, 
and flee to Medina. 

The year of his fliglit marks the era of the Hegira^ a word 
which in Arabic signifies the flight. It is still in use among the 
]\Iohammedan nations, who regard it as the beoinnino; of r 
their religion, and date events from it as we do from the 
year of the birth of Christ. Strictly speaking, the first Moham- 
medan New Year fell on Friday, July 16, a.d. 622. 

At Medina, where he had a number of adherents, Mohammed 
was kindly received, and on the day just named entered " the 
city of the prophet" as a conqueror crowned with victory rather 
than as a fugitive or an exile. The number of his followers 
now grew apace, and he established himself b}' erecting the first 
mosque, and building a modest house. 

Legend says that the angel Gabriel had revealed to the 
prophet the secret of the conspiracy at Mecca ; that he met the 
conspirators, or their messengers, on their errand of death as he 
was leaving his house, and threw at them a handful of dust, 
which struck them blind, and enabled him to pass nnhurt 
through their midst. But the pursuers hounded his steps, and 
as they drew near, he sought concealment in a cave. When 
they came to the cave, they found its entrance closed with a 
spider's web and the nest of a dove containing two eggs. These 
tokens convinced them that no one could have recently entered 
the cave, and they abandoned the pursuit. 

Mohammed, overwhelmed by this wonderful deliverance, 
showed his gratitude by enjoining his followers not to kill a 
spider, and to respect the dove as a sacred bird. 

At Medina he soon felt strong enough to assume the exercise 
of the royal and priestly oflSce. It was his mission, he said, to 
establish the new religion, peaceably if he might, but with the 
sword if he must ; idolatr}^ and infidelity must be destroyed, and 
it was decreed that his believing hosts should conquer the world. 



126 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

To believe was to enjoy and possess. " The sword," he said, 
' ' is the key of heaven and of hell ; a drop of blood shed in the 
cause of God, a night spent in arms, is of more avail than two 
months of prayer and fasting ; whosoever falls in battle, his sins 
are forgiven ; at the day of judgment his wounds shall be 
resplendent as vermilion, and fragrant as musk ; and the loss of 
his limbs shall be supplied by the wings of angels and cherubim." 
Fate, moreover, he taught, was unchangeably fixed, and no man 
could escape his destin}^ ; if he were ordained to die in his bed, 
he would be safe and invulnerable in the heat of battle. 

These promises, and the assurance of a large share of the 
spoils of conquest, fired the enthusiasm and promoted the cour- 
age of the followers of Mohammed. Victory was inscribed upon 
his banner, and the assured certainty of it enabled his hundreds 
to discomfit thousands of their foes. The whole of Arabia 
-] was overrun and subdued, and at last, he took Mecca, 
and broke in pieces the 360 idols of the Caaba. 

The Caaba, purified and adorned, he made the sanctuary of 
Islam, and enacted a perpetual law that no unbeliever should 
defile by his presence the territory of the holy city. His last 
solemn pilgrimage to Mecca he made at the head of not less than 
40,000 of the faithful. 

Soon after, he returned to Medina, and died, sixty-three years 
old, as some say, from the effects of poison, but more probably, 
from an attack of fever. His head reclining on the lap of 
Ayesha, the best beloved of his wives, and his eyes raised 
towards the roof of the house, he said with a faltering voice : 
June 8, " O God ! — pardon my sins. — Yes — I come — among 
632 my fellow-citizens on high," and breathed his last. 

The successors of Mohammed who extended the empire 
of the Arabs or Saracens were called Califs, or Chalifs, that 
is. Successors. From Medina, where they resided first, they 
moved to Damascus in Syria (a.d. 673), and lastly to Bagdad 
on the Tigris (a.d. 763). Their conquests were so great that 
for several centuries their empire exceeded that of Rome in 



630-632.] MOHAMMED. 127 

extent. Syria, as far as the Caucasus, Persia, Egypt, and North 
Africa obeyed their sway to the middle of the seventh century. 
In the beginning of the eighth century they invaded Spain, and 
expelled the Visigoths from that country. 

His body was placed in an iron coffin, and interred on the 
same spot where he died in the house of Ayesha, which is now 
enclosed within the mosque, enlarged by the chalif Walid, where 
the innumerable pilgrims to Mecca stop to honor the memory 
of the departed prophet. 

Mohammed is said to have been of middling size and robust 
of frame. His head was unusually large ; he wore his hair, 
which was curly, long, and his beard came down to the collar- 
bone. His face, of a light tawny color, was oval, and distin- 
guished by a broad forehead, long but narrow eyebrows, long 
e3^elashes, and sparkling jet-black eyes. An aquiline nose, 
thin lips and white teeth, the incisors asunder, complete the de- 
scription of his countenance. He had a stoop and was slightly 
humpbacked. A round, fleshy tumor on his back, covered with 
hair, was regarded by his devout followers as the seal of his 
mission. His gait was heavy, and, if he looked back, he turned 
the whole body. The whole of his presence was majestic, and 
the magnetism of his eloquence proverbial. His manner was 
grave and affable ; his wit ready, his memory tenacious, his 
imagination sublime, his judgment clear, and his courage prodi- 
gious. Simple and frugal in his habits, he deemed the loss of 
earthly goods of small moment. A leather pouch filled with 
date leaves was his pillow, and an Arabian cloak his bed. 
Barley-bread, dates, milk, and hone3" were his ordinary food. 

The summary of the teaching of Mohammed is expressed in 
the sentence, ''There is only one God and Mohammed is His 
prophet," of which the first part is as true as the second is 
false. He acknowledged the divine mission of Moses and 
Christ, though in a lower sense than his own. 

The necessary duties enjoined upon the Moslem include five 
daily ablutions, and on the principle that the practice of reli- 



128 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

gion is founded on cleanliness, the very ground or the piece of 
carpet on which he prays are required to be scrupulously clean. 
Every good Moslem has therefore a prayer-carpet, called Seg- 
gad^h. He is required to pray five times in everj' 24 hours, 
and to say his prayers with his face turned in the direction of 
Mecca. It is his duty to abstain during the entire month of 
Ramadan, from sunrise to sunset, from eating, drinking, smok- 
ing, bathing, and all unnecessary worldly pleasure. He is also 
bound to give alms to the extent of one-tenth of his income, 
and enjoined to make the pilgrimage to Mecca. The neglect 
of that duty, in the opinion of all good Moslems, is so dreadful 
that the delinquent " might as well die a Jew or a Christian." 

Prayer, which Mohammed was wont to call " the pillar of re- 
ligion" and "the key to paradise," according to him "would 
carry a man half way to God, fasting would take him to the 
door of His palace, and alms would procure him admission." 

The sacred book of the Moslems is called the Ko7'an, that is. 
The Reading, or The Book, and the}^ designate their faith or 
religion by the word Islam, which means the entire surrender 
of body and soul to God, his will and service, and to all the 
articles of faith, commandments, and ordinances revealed to 
Mohammed, and enjoined by'^im. The word Moslem, cor- 
rupted into Musalman, or Musulman, is derived from the same 
root, and denotes believers who have found peace, by accepting 
the Islam as just explained. Their priests or ministers are 
called Imaums, their high-priest bears the name of Mufti, and 
their monks are known as Dervishes. 

Friday is the Moslem's weekly day of rest, which, though set 
apart to religious worship, does not prevent their spending the 
remainder of the day either in business or recreation. 

The Moslems are forbidden, among other things, the use of 
wine and all intoxicating drink ; to eat swine's flesh ; to gam- 
ble ; to take usur^^ ; and to practise idolatry in any form. 

The Koran permits the practice of polygamy, and it is curious 
that, though a Moslem may marry a Christian or Jewish wife. 



569-632.] MOHAMMED. 129 

a Moliammedan woman must not, under any circumstances, 
man-y an unbeliever. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon, " History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire," 
vol. V. pp. 74-168, Milman's erL, N.Y. 1856; AVeil, "Mohammed the 
Prophet," Stuttgart, 1843 ; Sprenger, " Life of JMohammed from 
Original Sources," Allahabad, 1856; "The Koran," Sale's edition, 
PhUadelphia, 1856. 




130 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 



682-735] BONIFACE. 

About the time when the religion of Mohammed displaced 
Christianity in Syria, Egypt, North Africa, and Spain, Chris- 
tian missionaries from England successfully established it in 
Germany. 

The Franks, the conquerors of Gaul, pushed the Visigoths to 
the Pyrenees, made the Burgundians tributary, subdued the 
country of the Alemanni and the Thuringians, and established 
an empire which, about the middle of the sixth century, extended 
-, from the Pyrenees to the Saale, and from the North Sea 
to the Alps. They accepted Christianity at an early 
period. Irish missionaries had labored among the Alemanni and 
Bavarians, — that is, in South Germany, — and planted there the 
Christian religion in the course of the seventh century. But 
the central and northern regions of Germany adhered obstinately 
to the pagan worship of the North. 

The first Christian missionary who carried Christianity into 

-| that part of Germany was Winfrid. He was a West 

Saxon, and a native of Crediton in Devonshire. At an 

early age he discovered a strong predilection for the monastic 

profession, and an invincible desire to preach the Gospel to the 

heathen. After a long preparation as a teacher and a priest, 

-J accompanied by three of his brethren, he set out for 

Friesland (Frisia) , and landed there at a time when the 

country was distracted by war. He went as far as Utrecht, 

but all his efforts were fruitless, and he deemed it prudent to 

return to his monastery, and wait for a more convenient season. 

Convinced that the success of his efforts depended on the 

patronage and support of those in power, he made up his mind 



496-735.] BONIFACE. 131 

to secure them by enlisting the approbation and sympa- r- 
thy of the pope, and directed his steps to Korae. 

In this he was entirely successful, and, charged b^- the pope 
to make Germany the sphere of his labors, stopped on his 
wa}^ with Liutprand, king of the Lombards, and passed into 
Bavaria and Thuringia, where he spent some time in preaching 
to the people, and in reforming the morals of the ignorant 
clergy. The successes of the Franks in Friesland induced him 
to revisit that country, and he passed the next three years 
with the aged Willibrord, at Utrecht, in earnest and efficient 
missionary labors. 

Eager to work where none had been before, he returned to 
Germany, and labored under severe trials among the p 
Hessians and Saxons so effectually, that after a few 
years he could point to a large number of fervent converts. 
The fame of his success had reached Gregory II., who sum- 
moned the missionary to Eome, and consecrated him r- 
bishop of Germany. Clothed with this dignity, and fur- 
nished with letters of commendation to the Frankish princes, 
he returned to his converts, and earned golden laurels p 
by the judicious zeal with which he furthered the work 
of the Gospel. 

He was a very courageous man, and understood not only 
how to preach, but to act at the right time. Near the village of 
Geismar, among the Hessians, on a high mountain, stood a 
venerable oak-tree consecrated to Thor, the god of thunder, 
which from time immemorial was visited at stated seasons by 
multitudes of the superstitious people for idolatrous purposes. 
On the occasion of such a festival, when the people had flocked 
together in large numbers to sacrifice to Thor, Winfrid, who at 
his consecration had received the name of Boniface, that is, 
the Benefactor, arrayed in his episcopal robes, and carrying the 
pastoral staff in his hand, suddenly appeared in their midst. 
Seizing an axe, he struck the tree with mighty blows, in the 
name of Christ. Loud were the curses of the pagans at this 



132 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

act of sacrilege, and tlieir cries for revenge. They thought 
that their mighty god would protect his sacred tree, and destroy 
the impious offender ; but no ill ensued, and when Boniface 
and his companions had wielded the axe until they reached the 
core, the mighty tree came down with a tremendous crash and 
broke into four pieces. Seeing that the bishop stood unhurt 
and undaunted, they believed him, when he told them that there 
was no such god as Thor, then and there forswore paganism, 
and were baptized. Bonifa,ce then caused the oak to be cut up, 
a.nd ordered the wood to be used in the erection of a chapel 
which he consecrated to St. Peter. 

The apostolic labors of Boniface were very great. At his 
request missionaries came out from England, who labored under 
his direction with singular self-denial and zeal, though the 
bitter hostility of the pagan tribes not only destroj'ed the fruits 
of their labors, but endangered their lives. By one such incur- 
sion not less than 30 churches were levelled with the ground. 

Boniface, for the purpose of insuring a permanent supply of 
missionaries and efficient associates, founded quite a number 
of monasteries and convents. Plis first foundation was a small 
cell ; then arose the monasteries at Fritzlar and Amelburg, and 
at last, the magnificent abbey ofFulda, which after a few years 
contained as many as 400 monks. 

Convents were built at Bischofsheim, Kissingen, Heidenheim, 
and elsewhere. The labors of Boniface were not only religious, 
but truly civilizing. His monks taught the people agriculture 
and useful trades, and the ^'outh to read and write. He abol- 
ished slavery, and encouraged the building of hamlets and 
villages. The monks made fabrics of wool and linen, and the 
nuns were wont to sew, spin, and embroider. The clergy, 
moreover, instructed mechanics to work in metal, stone, and 
wood, and thus fostered art. 

After sometime Boniface was made archbishop, or metro- 

-| politan, of the whole of Germany, and in that capacity 

established bishoprics throughout its wide extent, wher- 



732-752.] BONIFACE. 133 

ever in Ms judgment they were required. All these bishops 
were under his jurisdiction, and he and they were bound to 
acknowledge the supremacy of the pope. On account of this 
widespread and long-continued sphere of his labors, Boniface 
has been called the Ajyostle of Germany. 

Towards the close of his life, Boniface fixed his residence in 
the city of Mentz, and at the request, or under the advice 
of pope Zachary, crowned Pepin, the mayor of the r- 
palace, king of the Franks. 

The sceptre of the Franks had gradually slipped from the 
feeble grasp of the Merovingian kings into the hands of Charles 
Martel and his sous, who were called Mayors of the Palace. 
The king himself was a mere figure-head who was once a year 
exhibited to the people, and the mayor of the palace was the 
real ruler. Pepin, impatient of the mockery of royalty, asked 
the bishop of Rome to decide which were better, either that he 
should hold the office and name of king who wielded the kingly 
power, or that the office and the name should be enjoyed by 
him who bore the name but had no power. The pope decided 
that it seemed to him better that the office and name of king 
should be enjoyed by him who wielded the power. Under the 
influence of this decision, Pepin sent Childeric, the last king of 
the race of Clovis, to the monastery of Sithiu, where he was 
shorn, which means, that by becoming a monk he was deposed, 
and Pepin became king. 

Not long after this important event the aged Boniface, 
accompanied b}* the retinue of a bishop, three priests, as many 
deacons, four monks, and 41 laymen, undertook a missionary 
journey to the first scene of his labors in Friesland. By his 
exhortations thousands of the idolaters were converted and 
baptized. The new converts were expected to appear a few 
weeks later, on the eve of Whitsun-day in the plain of Dockum, 
to be confirmed. At daybreak Boniface was told that a body 
of armed Frisians was approaching. The laymen were pre- 
paring to defend themselves, but Boniface, leaving liis tent, bade 



134 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

them sheathe their swords and receive the martyr's crown. He 
had hardly ceased speaking, when the pagans rushed upon them, 
and in their fury slew them to a man. The dreadful news 
became known to the Christian Frisians, who in their turn fell 
upon their pagan countrymen and avenged in their blood the 
July 5, death of Boniface and his companions. Thus died the 
755 good and apostolic Boniface. His remains were gathered 
up and removed to the abbey of Fulda, where may still be 
seen a copy of the Gospels written by him, and a leaf stained 
with his blood. 

The Anglo-Saxons considered Boniface as the glory of their 
nation, enrolled his name in the calendar, and chose him for 
one of the patrons of their church. 

REFERENCES. 

Liiigard, "Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Church," Baltimore, 
1857, pp. 258-268; Schmidt, "History of the Germans," Frankenthal, 
1792, vol. XL 




EUROPE 

under 

-- CHARLES THE GREAT 

P I Eastern Empire | [ Western Caliphate 

I I Western Empire | | Eastern Caliphate 



10 Longitude Eaet f 




reenwicb 20 



-v * See. N. T, 



742-814.] CHARLEMAGNE. 136 



CHARLEMAGNE. [742-814 



Pepin the Short had two sons, Charles and Carloman, who 
upon his death succeeded jointly to the throne. Charles, p 
at the time of his accession, was twenty-six years old. 
Carloman died after three years, and Charles became 



("771 
sole king of the Franks. 

The grand purpose of his reign, to which he adhered through- 
out, was the unification of all the nations of Western Europe 
into a Christian empire. 

His first effort in this direction was the conversion and sub- 
jection of the Saxons, a strong and belligerent people, that 
until then had maintained their independence, and successfully 
resisted the hostile attempts of other nations. Their country 
in the north-western part of Germany was covered with vast 
forests and morasses, and well suited to their habits and mode 
of life. They were troublesome and dangerous neighbors, and 
their hatred of the Franks was as strong as that of the Chris- 
tian religion. 

The Saxons were divided into four tribes, called the West- 
phalians, the Engers (Angrivarii), the Eastphalians, and the 
Northalbingians ; they occupied the country between the Elbe 
and the Rhine, the North Sea and the mountains of Hesse and 
Thuringia. They clung to primitive usage in maintaining the 
threefold division of the people into nobles, freemen, and f reed- 
men, and submitted to the rule of dukes, or martial leaders, 
onl}' in time of war. The nobles sought to establish a lordship 
over the freemen by keeping a large body of followers, p 
with whom they would often make incursions for plunder 
into the territory of the Franks. 



136 * MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

At the Diet of Worms it was resolved to make war against 
the Saxons, and Charles invaded their territory, advanced as 
far as the Eresburg, a strong fortress, which he carried b}' 
storm, destroyed the Irmensul, an ancient and sacred trunk or 
tree, and compelled the enemy to sue for peace and give hos- 
tages. 

At the urgent request of pope Hadrian I., Charles espoused 
his cause against Desiderius, king of the Lombards, who was 
justly incensed against Charles for his treatment of his daughter, 
whom he had married, but discarded at the end of a year, 
and sent back to Desiderius. The widow of Carloman and her 
sons also had found a welcome refuge at his court, and out of 
revenge he importuned the pope to crown the sons of Carloman. 
The pope refusing, Desiderius overran and laid waste the papal 
territory. In this emergency the pope invoked the aid of 
Charles, who crossed the Alps, from Geneva, with two armies, 
-| by the Great St. Bernard and Mont Cenis, and rapidly 
descended into the plain of the Po. Desiderius sought 
the shelter of the strongly fortified cit}^ of Pavia, and Adelchis, 
his son, accompanied by the widow and children of Carloman, 
that of Verona. 

The open country quickly submitted to the arms of Charles. 

At Verona the widow and children of Carloman fell into his 

T hands, and found a home, and their graves, in France. 
774] ' e. ' 

Pavia held out for many months, but had to capitulate, 
and Desiderius ended his days in the monastery of Corvey in 
Westphalia. 

Legend sa3's that Desiderius, when shut up in Pavia, had 
a great longing to see Charles, and ascended with a Prankish 
deserter, called Otker, the highest tower to watch the approach- 
ing host. The troops in charge of the baggage arrived first, and 
the king asked if Charles were among them. " Not yet," said 
Otker. A body of the rank and file came next, and the king 
repeated the same question. " Not yet," said Otker. The king 
became alarmed, as the number of the investino- host ojrew 



568-777.] CHARLEMAGNE. 137 

larger aud larger ; he inquired again and again, but the an- 
swer still rang, " Not yet." Presently a cloud seemed to rise 
in the west and move in their direction. It came nearer, and 
the vast plain glittered with arms. In the midst of the host 
moved a majestic figure encased in armor, seated on an iron- 
clad horse, a spear in his left hand, and his right ready to 
grasp the sword. All the soldiery around him wore armor, and 
the whole country seemed to be covered with iron, and to flash 
defiance and destruction. "That is your man," cried Otker, 
and Desiderius fell down in terror. 

Pending the siege of Pavia, Charles went to Rome, cele- 
brated Easter there, and placed the diploma, ratifying the mag- 
nificent donation of his father Pepin, upon the altar of St. 
Peter. At Pavia Charles was crowned with the iron crown of 
the Lombards, and called himself " King of the Franks and of 
the Lombards." That crown is made of gold, but owes tbe 
epithet " iron" to an iron band in the inside, said to have been 
wrought from a nail of the cross of Christ. Adelchis, the 
son of Desiderius, fled to Constantinople, and the Lombard 

kino'dom after an existence of more than two cen- r- 

. -, , T [568-774 

tunes ceased to be. 

During the absence of Charles, the Saxons, as was their wont, 
rose in arms ; he marched a2:ainst them, aud reduced n 
them to terms ; but the truce was of short duration, 
for their hostilities were renewed the very next year when 
Charles returned to Italy in order to suppress an insurrection 
of the Lombards. They recovered the Eresburg and laid 
siege to Sigburg ; Charles hastened to its relief, aud defeated 
them ; he gave to those whom he could find, the option of sub- 
mitting to the baptism of water, or to that of blood, aud many 
of their numljers preferred the former and gave hostages. 

Such compulsory conversions, however, were neither lasting 
nor sincere, for both the unbaptized and baptized Saxons re- 
garded baptism as the grave of their liberty, and, although 
many of their number appeared at the bidding of Charles 



138 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

at the Diet of Paderborn, and swore fealty, the absence of 

-, Wittekind, the most intrepid and powerful of their 
777 J 

leaders, boded no good. 

To that Diet came also Moorish envoys from Saragossa, 
invoking the aid of Charles against the king of Cordova. He 
collected a large army, inA^aded Spain, and in a brilliant cam- 
paign conquered the country between the Pyrenees and the 
Ebro, which under the name of the Spanish Marche was incor- 
porated in his dominions. 

On his return, the rear of his arm}^ was molested by the 

-, Basques, in the pass of Roncesvalles, and almost 

annihilated. Among the slain was the famous Roland, 

of whose exploits so much has been written in the legends of 

chivalry. 

Charles had cause for a rapid march from the Peninsula of 
Spain to the banks of the Rhine, for the Saxons, led by Wit- 
tekind, were again in arms, and had not only destroyed the 
castles and churches which he had built, but also murdered 
the Prankish garrisons, laid waste the country to the Rhine, 
and advanced as far as Deutz opposite to Cologne. 

Charles pursued, overtook, and defeated them. He spent two 
years in their country, built churcKes and monasteries, founded 
bishoprics and established schools, as so many means for pro- 
moting the civilization of the people, whom he required more- 
over to pay tithes to the Church. The Saxons promised, and 
-, Charles was so confident of his success that he undertook a 

78 1 

journey to Rome, where the pope crowned his second son, 
Pepin, king of Italy, and his third son, Louis, king of Aquitaine. 
Charles, his eldest son, was the constant companion of all his 
undertakings. 

The reduction of the Saxons, however, was far from accom- 
plished, although Charles felt so assured of their loyalty that he 
ordered them to join his Franks in an expedition against the 
Slavonic tribes, whose incursions spread terror through the 
eastern limits of his dominions. The Saxons appeared in arms. 



777-786.] CHARLEMAGNE, 139 

but instead of joining the Franks, turned upon and defeated 
them with great slaughter on the Suntel, a mountain on p 
the Weser. 

Astounded and incensed at the news, Charles swore, and 
took revenge in the next campaign, on the bloody field at Ver- 
den, where in his wrath he caused to be beheaded in one day 
not less than 4,500 Saxon prisoners. This dreadful act, as 
might have been expected, roused the Saxons to yet more de- 
termined resistance. The whole nation rose in arms against 
" the butcher," as they called Charles ; a sanguinar^^ but inde- 
cisive battle was fought in the next year at Detmold, and p 
followed by that on the Hase, in which the Saxons sustained 
a total defeat. Wittekind fled into Denmark, but the people, 
though defeated in battle, maintained the struggle for two years 
longer. The superior strength and resources of Charles, as well 
as the adoption of a more clement and humane policy, accom- 
plished their final subjection, and conversion into loyal vassals. 

Some of his measures, however, were hardly wise, especially 
the compulsory payment of tithes for the support of the Church, 
which Charles regarded in the light of a sacred duty, while the 
Saxons loathed it as tribute in disguise. His code of laws, 
moreover, as set forth in the Diet of Paderborn, was too severe, 
and incensed rather than pacified the free and independent 
Saxons. He sent for Wittekind and Albion, promised them 
safe conduct, gave hostages for their security, and induced them 
to visit him at Attigny in France. 

They went, were kindly received, and found the proposals of 
Charles so satisfactory that they swore fealty, and his argu- 
ments in favor of Christianity so conclusive that they professed 
themselves convinced and ready to be baptized. Charles him- 
self stood godfather to Wittekind, and the influence of his ex- 
ample was so great that many Saxon nobles, and thou- p 
sands of the people, submitted to baptism. 

Legend delivers the conversion of AYittekind rather differently. 
It says that, disguised as a beggar, he went into the camp of 



140 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

Charles, and was present at the mass on Easter Day. As the 
priest was elevating the host, he saw therein a beautiful and 
heavenly babe. After the service, the Saxon chief was recog- 
nized and led to Charles. He told the king what he had seen, 
and craved baptism. His example was quickly followed by 
others, and he persuaded his countrymen to sheathe the sword 
and keep the peace ; at least, for the time. 

-| In response to the urgent entreaties of Hadrian, Charles 

repaired to Italy and crushed the formidable rebellion 

fomented by Arigisio, the duke of Benevento, and son-in-law 

-, of Desiderius. Tassilo, duke of Bavaria, his other son- 
787 

in-law, also meditated revolt. Charles returned to Ger- 
many, deposed Tassilo, and added his duchy to his dominions. 
This extension of his empire brought him in contact with the 
turbulent Slavonians and Avars, whose hostile incursions, exe- 
cuted with great rapidity, were most destructive, and needed to 
be checked. Charles undertook to chastise them. Three col- 
umns of his victorious Franks, augmented by the tributary 
Frisians and Saxons, were poured through the Carpathian moun- 
tains and along the Danube, b}^ land and by water, into the 
heart of their country. Their rings, that is, the wooden fortifi- 
cations which encircled their vilfages and settlements, were de- 
stroyed ; and after a bloody conflict of eight years their absolute 
overthrow was attested by a depopulated country, the utter 
-I ruin of the royal residence of the cha^an, and the 

yoQ TOR "^ . 

dispersion of their treasures, the rapine of 250 years, 
among the warriors of Charles, and over the churches and pal- 
aces of Italy and Gaul. 

The ancient and vague country of Pannonia, as far as the 
Raab in Hungary, received the new name of the lllarche of the 
Avars, which Charles portioned out among his Frankish, Saxon, 
and Bavarian subjects, and thus laid the foundations of the great 
eastern empire, now known as Austria. 

The pacification and conversion of the Saxons, however, were 
far from completed, and entailed much effusion of blood in pro- 



787-811.] CHARLEMAGNE. 141 

tracted warfare. Many SaxoDs were removed by Charles to 
other lands ; some he sent to France, others to iiavaria, and to 
the Marche of the Avars. Traces of this policy survive to this 
day in the names of Sachsenhausen, that is, the home of the 
Saxons, opposite to Frankfort-on-the-Main, and of Sachsenheim 
in Franconia ; just as those of Frankfort-on-the-Main, and on 
the Oder, indicate the fords by which the armies of Charles 
crossed those rivers. Those troubles only terminated r 

803 

with the treaty, known as the Peace of Selz, by which 
the Saxons were in all respects made the equals of the Franks, 
but required to renounce idolatry, receive baptism, pa}^ tithes, 
and enjoy immunity from all taxation and payment of tribute. 

The last important military expedition which Cliarles under- 
took was directed against the Normans, or Northmen, a Teutonic 
race, who then occupied the modern countries of Denmark, Swe- 
den, and Norway, and, like their neighbors and brethren the Sax- 
ons, were fierce warriors, but especially dreaded as pirates. The 
most inveterate of the Saxon idolaters had gone to them ; their 
sudden and frequent descents upon the coasts of Germany and 
Gaul, marked by acts of savage cruelty, had made their r- 
name a terror in those parts. Charles, the son of Charle- 
magne, had already defeated them, but the Normans soon after 
landed in Friesland and laid the people under tribute. To r- 
avenge the insult, and chastise the pirates, Charlemagne 
advanced against them as far as the Weser, when the good news 
of the death of Godfrey, the fierce king of the Danes, arrested 
his progress, and stayed further hostilities from that quarter 
during the remaining years of his life. 

Events of vast importance to Charles and his successors 

which had been enacted in Italv remain to be told. The r- 

705 
death of his life-long friend, pope Hadrian, was a great 

blow to Charles. He wept for him as a son weeps for his 

father. Leo III., his successor in the pontificate, on his way, 

in solemn procession, to the church of St. Lawrence, was beset 

bv a band of armed men, who threw him from his horse, 



142 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

dragged him to the church, and attempted to put out his eyes 
April, and cut off his tongue. In this they did not succeed ; 
799 aud though they cast him into prison, he was rescued by 
a faithful servant, and recovered his sight and his speech. The 
matter was referred to Charles, who bade the pontiff pay him 
a visit at Paderborn, as owing to an impending expedition 
against the Saxons he could not then go to Italy. Leo com- 
plied with the request, and, attended by a numerous retinue, 
went to Charles, who gave him a cordial and magnificent recep- 
tion, promised to visit Rome in person, and caused him to be 
reconducted to his see with a powerful escort. 

Towards the close of the year Charles set out for Rome, and 
soon after his arrival investigated the charges which had been 
preferred against the pope, with the result that their falsity was 
established, their promoters were punished, and the pope 
openly in the face of the people, holding the holy Gospels in 
his hands, avouched his own innocence. This took place a few 
days before Christmas, which was not only the beginning of 
the New Year, but of a new century. 

Charles, his court, and all Rome, were present at the high 
-, services of the Nativity in St. Peter's. He knelt in 

800 _ "" 

profound devotion on the steps of the altar. When he 
arose, the pope approached him, with a splendid crown in his 
hands, placed it on his head, and saluted him as Caesar Augus- 
tus ; the dome resounded with the acclamations of the clergy, 
the soldiery, and the people : " Long life and victory to Charles, 
the most pious Augustus, crowned by God the great and pacific 
emperor of the Romans ! " 

This solemn act was ratified by the unction of Charles, and 
Pepin his son, the salutation and adoration of the pontiff, and 
the rich offerings which the emperor placed upon the altar. 
Thus began the Germano-Roman empire 324 years after the 
overthrow of the Western empire by Odoacer. 

His coronation is often represented as the sudden and uncon- 
certed act of Leo's gratitude, and the secretary and historian 



799-814.] CHARLEMAGNE. 143 

of Charlemagne actiiall}' states that had he known the pope's 
intention, he would not have entered the church. But that 
statement carries little weight, for it is known that Charles 
coveted the imperial title, and that a Roman synod had pro- 
nounced it the only adequate reward of his merit ; a tacit 
understanding between him and Leo may be regarded as estab- 
lished beyond all doubt. 

The last years of the life of Charlemagne were shrouded in 
sorrow. He had to mourn the loss of his sons Pepin and 
Charles, and as he felt his strength waning, summoned the 
notables of the empire to his palace at Aix-la-Chapelle, pre- 
sented to them his youngest son, Louis, and took their promise 
of allegiance to him. On the following day, arrayed in his 
imperial robe, he went with Louis to the church of St. Mary, 
and in the presence of a vast assembl}^ explained and com- 
mended to him the duties of an emperor. He then bade him 
take the imperial crown from the altar and place it on p 
his head, in token that its possession was the gift of 
God, and not conferred by man. After that they parted, and 
Louis returned to his kingdom of Aquitaine. 

Soon after, Charles took a violent fever. Averse to medi- 
cine, he had recourse to his usual and simple remedy of abstain- 
ing from food. But it failed, and he grew weaker. On the 
fifth day of his sickness he received the Sacrament, and on the 
seventh he succumbed to the fever. At the approach of death 
he signed himself with the sign of the cross, meekl}^ folded his 
hands, closed his e^'es, and said in a low voice, jan. 28, 
"Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit!" 814 
Thus he died. 

On the same day his body was embalmed, arrayed with all 
the insignia of imperial splendor, seated on a golden throne, 
and thus lowered into the vault of the church of St. Marv. 
There sat Charles in death as if he were yet alive, in his i)urple 
imperial robe covered with golden bees, the crown on his head, 
his feet encased in golden shoes, a sword and the i)ilgrim'a 



144 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

wallet around him, the holy Gospels on his knees, a shield and 
a sceptre at his side. Then the vault was filled with spices, 
and closed up. 

The propriety of the words "great," and "pacific," with 
which Leo greeted Charles on the day of his coronation may 
fairly be questioned. Though the title of " great " is indissol- 
ubly blended with his name, and though that name with the 
prefix of " Saint" stands in the Roman calendar, there is much 
in his character and life which seems to conflict with true great- 
ness and true holiness. 

A great conqueror and a great governor he was, but the 
widow and sons of Carloman, as well as Desiderius, with his 
son and daughter, and his sons-in-law, would doubtless call him 
a great tyrant, while the 4,500 Saxon prisoners whom he caused 
to be beheaded in one day rise in judgment against him, and 
justify the ignominious surname of " butcher" which their sur- 
viving friends gave to him. . 

To call Charles, who throughout his life, and to his dying 
hour, was engaged in war, a pacific emperor may provoke our 
mirth, but cannot command our assent. 

His age was barbarous, warfare was barbarous, might was 
right, and Charles was a tyrant;' Blind obedience might secure 
his friendship, but opposition was sure to draw forth his implac- 
able hatred. His wrath knew no mercy, though his religious con- 
victions were doubtless sincere. Although not a man of letters, 
he sought to improve himself, and in mature age strove to mas- 
ter the art of writing. He loved to share the labors of learned 
men in the production of a German grammar, and caused the 
songs and poems of ancient times to be collected. He even 
supported his friend and chancellor, Alcuin, in his efforts to fix 
the Latin text of the sacred Scriptures. 

An excellent and zealous churchman, he created bishoprics, 
built churches, monasteries and convents, and schools, and his 
bounty provided the means for their support. He even had a 
school in his palace, and required all the boys to attend. Some- 



742-814.] CHARLEMAGNE. 145 

times he visited the school, and having noticed that the sons of 
the higher officers ranked below those of inferior servants in 
conduct and attainments, he made the latter stand on his right 
hand, and said to them : "I thank you, children, for 3-our work, 
which pleases me, and will be of lasting benefit to you." The 
former he bade stand on his left, and rated them thus : " You, 
princes and the like, who have not obeyed me, and instead of 
learning have wasted your time in play and idling, I want you 
to know that your birth and your riches w^ill not help you, and 
unless you turn over a new leaf and study, I swear that Charles 
will never be jowc friend, nor do you a good turn." He encour- 
aged art and fostered the culture of music. Italian architects 
constructed for him magnificent palaces at Aix-la-Chapelle, Nim- 
wegen, and Ingelheim, and he projected great national works, 
notably a canal, designed to connect the Rhine and the Danube. 

As a legislator he erred in the severity of his laws, which, on 
the whole, were more oppressive than beneficial. 

For the Saxons he decreed the pain of death on the refusal of 
baptism, on the false pretense of baptism, on a relapse into 
idolatry, and on eating meat in Lent. 

He encouraged agriculture, and his own domains were model 
establishments ; he was familiar with the smallest details of in- 
come and expense, and in a directory drawn up by him for the 
use of his stewards, preserved to this da}^, may be read his in- 
structions for the preparation of butter and cheese, the brewing 
of beer, and the making of wine, as well as how many geese, 
ducks, chickens, and eggs should be sold. 

His standing army was small, but his " Heerbann," or call to 
arms, required all his freeborn subjects, able for military ser- 
vice, to flock to his standard, fully armed and supplied with 
three months' provisions. 

The stature of Charles was large ; he measured in height 
seven of his own feet, and his strength was so prodigious that 
he was credited with the ability of breaking a horseshoe as if it 
were bread, and with having at one terrific blow cleft asunder a 



146 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

Saracen horseman, from the helmet to the saddle. His counte- 
nance was pleasing ; he had a straight nose, large, bright eyes, 
ordinarily of a cheerful expression, but flashing fire when he was 
angry. His black hair was long and waving, his gait and pres- 
ence commanding, and his voice clear and melodious. 

He was fond of manly exercise, especially of hunting. Spare 
of diet, and partial to venison, he loved to hear at his meals the 
stories of the past, and the songs of the heroes. 

He needed but little sleep, and was wont to rise and work at 
night. 

His dress was of primitive simplicity. His clothes were 
homespun, and, it is said, made by the ladies of his family. In 
summer he wore linen and a plain coat. In winter, but only 
late in life, he put on woolens and a fur coat. On grand occa- 
sions he appeared in all the magnificence of imperial spiendor. 

The long reign of Charles, the extent of his conquests, liis 
liberal views, the strength of his government, and the esteem of 
his contemporaries combine to assign to him a commanding- 
place in history ; but the vast empire, which he restored, and 
ruled by his iron will, in the more feeble hands of his successors 
underwent a speedy partition. 

REFERENCES. 

Gibbon, "Decline and Fall," etc., vol. Y. pp. 27-53; Milraan, 
"Latin Christianity," vol. II. pp. 438-508; Duller, "History of the 
German People," vol. I. pp. 123-153; Schmidt, "History of the Ger- 
mans," vol. III. pp. 1-35, 




836-901.] ALFRED THE GREAT. I47 



ALFRED THE GREAT. [871-901 

The Roman conquest of Great Britain emljraced England and 
the Lowlands of Caledonia, or Scotland. The withdrawal of the 
Roman troops in the beginning of the fifth century exposed the 
Britons to the incursions of the Picts and Scots, and induced 
them to make friends with the Saxons and Angles, through 
whose aid they hoped to expel their northern enemies. The 
Saxons came, and fought not only the Picts and Scots, but the 
Britons ; drove them into Cornwall, Wales, and Cumberland, 
and ^de themselves masters of all the land from the Frith of 
Forth to the English Channel, and from the Severn to the North 
Sea. The name of England, that is, the land of the Angles, 
transmits the history of their conquest, just as the names of 
Essex, Wessex, and Sussex indicate the counties in which the 
several Saxon tribes established their petty kingdoms. There 
were seven such kingdoms, which, in the beginning of the ninth 
century, were united into one kingdom under Egbert, p 
who took the title of King of the English. 

The Saxon king Ethelwulf had four sons, Ethelbald, Ethel- 
bert, Ethelred, and Alfred. Osber^a, his wife, was r 
a good woman and an excellent mother. One day 
she was reading to her children from a beautifully illuminated 
book, which was written, not printed, some Saxon poetr}^, and 
told them, because none of them could read, "whichever of you 
can first learn to read this book, shall have it as a gift." Alfred, 
the youngest, at once set to work, and ver}- soon carried off the 
prize. He appears to have been a favorite with both his par- 
ents ; and on a visit which Ethelwulf paid to Rome, the pope 
anointed him as king, it is thought, of one of the minor thrones 



148 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, [A.D. 

of Britain. But it so happened that Ethelbald, Ethelbert, and 
Ethelred did not reign long, and the crown, by the unanimous 
-n choice of the people, was conferred upon Alfred, who was 
then only in his twenty-third year. 

At that time the Normans, or Norsemen, called Danes by the 
English, made frequent descents on the English coasts for plun- 
der and conquest, and, as they were generall}' successful, they 
soon came in larger numbers, intending to possess themselves of 
the whole country. 

In the very first year of his reign, Alfred had to fight the 
Danes in nine battles, and inflicted so much loss upon them that 
they consented to make a treaty of peace with him, in virtue 
whereof they had to evacuate Wessex, and retire to London, 
where they passed the winter. 

They were afraid to return to Wessex for three years, but in 
the meantime carried fire and sword into the country noi^h of 
London, as far as Scotland, so successfully that they conquered 
the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria, Mercia, and East 
Anglia. Then the contest for supremacy lay between them and 
Alfred, who had wisely employed the interval of the truce in the 
building of a small fleet. 

So when the Danes had surprised the castle of Wareham in 
-, Wessex, Alfred retaliated by a blow at sea. He attacked 
a Danish squadron of seven ships, took one, and put the 
rest to flight. The Danes were frightened, and swore by their 
bracelets and upon the relics of some Christian saints, to observe 
the peace. But as the binding force of oaths, promises, and 
treaties was so constantly disregarded by them that the people 
justly called them " truce-breakers," it is not surprising to read, 
that the very next night following the treaty with Alfred they 
fell upon him unawares, and almost possessed themselves of his 
person. 

Their plan was to take Alfred in the rear, and they galloped 
to Exeter, to which place they had also ordered a strong fleet 
with re-enforcements. Half their ships were wrecked in a storm. 



871-878.] ALFRED THE GREAT. ^49 

and the other half entirely destroyed at the mouth of the Exe 
by the Saxon fleet. Alfred then laid siege to Exeter and |- 
forced Guthrum, the king of the Danes, to capitulate, 
give hostages and oaths, and evacuate Wessex. 

Guthrum did not go very far, for he established himself at 
Gloucester, and in spite of his oaths, surprised Alfred at p 
Chippenham, on the feast of the Epiphany, with superior 
numbers, dispersed his troops, and compelled him to fl}- for 
safety to the obscure retreat of the isle of Athelney, in the heart 
of Somerset, where, attended by only a few faithful followers, 
and disguised as a common peasant, he found a temporary home 
in the lowly cabin of a swineherd. 

On a certain day when the swineherd's wife was baking her 
loaves, she bade her guest watch them. He was sitting near 
the hearth, but so intently at work upon his bow and arrows 
that he forgot the loaves, and when the woman returned they 
were burning. She was very angry and gave Alfred a sharp 
rating. "You man," she cried, " 3'ou will not turn the bread 
you see burning, but you will be glad enough to eat it." Alfred 
laughed, and his friend and biographer writes, "This unlucky 
woman little thought she was talking to the king." 

From his retreat Alfred communicated with friends, and some 
time between Easter and Whitsuntide of the same year, enough 
had repaired to him to warrant his reappearance in public, for 
both the Danes and his subjects thought that he was dead, or 
had gone to some foreign country. 

The story runs, that one day when Alfred sat alone reading, 
a poor pilgrim came begging his alms in God's name. He had 
only one loaf and a little wine, which he cheerfully divided with 
the pilgrim, who received his gifts with thanks, but suddenly 
vanished, and when he had gone, the gifts lay there un- 
touched. 

Soon after his servants returned laden with fish they had 
taken, and at night some one appeared to him, who said : 
"Alfred, thy will and conscience are known to Christ, who will 



150 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

now make an end of thy sorrow and care ; for to-morrow strong 
helpers will come to thee, and thou shalt subdue thine enemies." 
" Who art thou?" said the king. " St. Cuthbert," quoth the 
other, " the poor pilgrim that yesterday was here with thee, to 
whom thou gavest both bread and wine. I am busy for thee 
and thine ; wherefore have thou mind hereof, when it is well 
with thee." 

So tells the legend, and history records that not only did 
numbers flock to him, but that by a stroke of good fortune the 
magical banner of the Danes, called the Raven, had been cap- 
tured by the Saxons. The Danes, who were very superstitious, 
thought that loss a great and terrible calamity. The three 
daughters of the great Lodbroke, they said, had embroidered it 
in one noon-tide, and the raven would stretch his wings when 
they were victorious in battle, but droop when they were beaten. 
That standard was now in the hands of the enemy, who was 
preparing to march against them. But before he attacked the 
Danes Alfred, desiring to know their exact strength and posi- 
tion, disguised himself as a gleeman, or minstrel, and went with 
his harp into their camp. He played and sang in the very tent 
of Guthrum, and amused his warriors, while he found out every- 
thing he wanted to know. Then he returned to his friends, 
summoned his followers, led them against the Danes, defeated 
them with great slaughter, and compelled them to agree to a 
treaty of peace, which is still extant, and known as " Alfred and 
-, Guthrum's Peace." Upon the primary conditions that 
Guthrum should evacuate all Wessex and become a 
Christian, a large tract of country in the East of England was 
assigned to him and his Danes, which, joined to their posses- 
sions in Northumbria, stretched from the Tweed to the Thames, 
and as late as the time of the Norman conquest was known as 
the " Dane-lagh," or " Danelaw." 

Soon after the conclusion of the treaty, Guthrum went with 
only thirty of his chiefs to Aultre, near Athelney, where Alfred 
stood for him at the font, and gave him the baptismal Saxon 



878-897.] ALFRED THE GREAT. 151 

name of Athelstan. Throughout his life he remained the faith- 
ful friend and ally of his royal godfather. 

The ensuing fifteen years were, in a measure, peaceful, for 
the attacks of the Danes became less frequent. Of course these 
Danes were not the subjects of Guthrum, but fresh arrivals 
from be3'ond the sea, who infested the coasts of England, Hol- 
land, Belgium, and France, as it might suit their policy of 
alwa3's making war against the weakest. When France was 
strong, they assailed England ; when England was strong, they 
attacked France, or the neighboring countries. 

During those years much was done towards the civilization of 
England. By mutual agreement the laws of the Danes were 
assimilated to those of the vSaxons. Habits of industry and 
the arts of peace began to displace the barbarous usages of 
predatory warfare. Towns were rebuilt, roads and bridges re- 
paired, and fortresses reconstructed. Alfred made admirable 
provision for the defence of the country by the new system of 
dividing the entire militar}^ force of the land into two parts, 
which alternately relieved each other, so that in the event of war 
one-half of those liable to military duty were called out, while 
the other half remained at home for protection, and the cultiva- 
tion of the land. He also created a strong and competent navy 
which numbered more than a hundred sail. 

The danger, against which he had prepared, burst out with 
terrible violence in the formidable invasion of Haes- r 

893 8Q6 

ten, or Hasting, which was strengthened by the 
treacherous Danes in the Danelagh, who, now that Guthrum 
was dead, violated their oaths, joined the invaders, and by 
skilful and rapid operations speedily overran and spread terror 
through the greater part of the country. The war lasted for 
three years, and was aggravated by famine, " the pestilence of 
men, and the murrain of beasts." Alfred gave the enemy no 
rest until his power was broken, and the humbled Hasting 
recrossed the channel " without profit or honor." He p 
went to France and obtained a settlement there from its 



152 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

weak king, the fame whereof soon attracted numbers of his 
countr3'men, who a few years later conquered the countr}^ and 
called it Normandy. 

Alfred was as efficient in peace as he had been in war. Jus- 
tice and law had almost perished under the curse of war, but he 
undertook and accomplished the great task of their restoration. 

He revised the laws of the Anglo-Saxons, and prefixed to 
his code the . Ten Commandments and a portion of the law of 
Moses. He established such excellent systems of police and 
justice, and implanted so strong a love of honesty within the 
hearts of his people, that a man who had lost a full purse 
might find it untouched a month later on the very spot where 
he dropped it ; and it was a common thing to say that in his 
reign golden bracelets and jewels might have been hung across 
the streets and no one would have touched them. 

His energ}^ and singular activit}', fostered by a judicious and 
methodical division of time, deserve to be held up to the admi- 
ration and imitation of mankind. He travelled much and took 
note of difficult cases in law. To arbitrary, unjust, or corrupt 
judges he was inexorable, and there was hardly anything good, 
useful, or ennobling but received^ jiis attention. He found time 
for everything, for the duties of religion, for conversation, 
study, and translations, for learning poetry by heart, for plan- 
ning buildings, for instructing craftsmen in goldwork, and 
for teaching even falconers and dog-keepers their work. It is 
said that he divided each twenty-four hours into three equal 
portions of eight hours ; one-third he spent in affairs of state, 
another he devoted to religion and study, and the third he set 
apart to sleeping, eating, and the care of his body. The last 
matter is all the more noteworthy because he was delicate and 
troubled with a mysterious but painful disease, which baffled 
the skill, or more probably the ignorance, of his "leeches," or 
physicians. 

His ingenuity devised, in the absence of clocks or watches, 
which were then unknown, the contrivance of a time measure 



871-901.] ALFRED THE GREAT. 153 

by wax torches or candles, wbicli were all made of the same 
weight and size, and notched in the stem at regular distances. 
These time-candles were 12 inches long, and six were con- 
sumed in 24 hours ; one candle would burn four hours, and if 
it had six notches, each two inches of wax would mark the 
lapse of 40 minutes. But as exposure to draught caused the 
wax to burn too fast and irregularly, Alfred corrected the mat- 
ter by the further contrivance of cases made of wood and thin 
la3'ers of white horn, which were the first lanterns made in 
England, from models he may have seen in Italy. 

In the impulse he gave to education and literature, chiefly by 
his own example, Alfred achieved yet greater triumphs than 
those he gained as a warrior and as a lawgiver. In mature age 
he began to study Latin, translated and edited for the people 
the Consolations of Boethius, the Pastorals of pope Gregory, 
the General History of Orosius, and the Church History of 
Bede. His object was that every free-born English youth 
should " abide at his book till he can well understand English 
writing." To his example is due the English or Auglo-Saxon 
Chronicle, a compilation made during the reign of Alfred, who 
may be called the Creator of English Literature. 

He was an earnest and liberal patron of monasteries and 
schools, and drew to his country learned men from abroad to 
preside over the schools which he founded. He encouraged 
foreign travel, and sought to obtain useful information and 
knowledge from any quarter. At his bidding a Norwegian 
shipmaster explored the White Sea, Wulfstan traced the coast 
of Esthonia, and Suithelm performed the overland journey to 
India to carry his presents to the Syrian Christians who were 
settled on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel. 

Agriculture, architecture, commerce, and trade, in fact, what- 
ever could promote the growth, culture, and prosperity of 
England, engaged his thoughts, and drew forth his liberal and 
earnest support. The villages and towns which in the war had 
been destroyed rose from their ruins, those which hnd escaped 



154 



MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



[A.D. 



destruction, he beautified and enlarged ; he made London his 
capital, and provided in fifty strong towers and castles an ad- 
mirable defence against the incursions of enemies. 

This excellent Christian king, who lived for the good of his 
people, deserves on account of his virtues to be called Great. 
" So long as I have lived," he wrote, " I have striven to live 
worthily," and longed " to leave to the men that come after a 
remembrance of him in good works." 



90l] 



He died in the fifty-third year of his age and the 
thirtieth of his reign. 

His death is recorded in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as fol- 
lows : — 

" 901. This year died Alfred, the son of Ethelwulf, six 
nights before the mass of All Saints. He was king over all the 
English nation, except that part that was under the power of 
the Danes. He held the government one year and a half less 
than thirty winters ; and then Edward his son took to the 
government." 

REFERENCES. 

Mackintosh, "History of England," ch. XL; Knight, "Pictorial 
History of England," vol. L ; IVMln^r, " History of England," pp. 
80-92 ; Green, " Short History of the English People," pp. 77-84, and 
the authorities prefixed to Section V. of that work. 




1072-1099.] GODFREY OF BOUILLON. 165 



GODFREY OF BOUILLON. [io96-io99 

The Holy Land, and especially the Holy Places, at Jerusalem 
were very early visited by pilgrims. The churches built by the 
emperor Constantine, and Helena his mother, over the Holy 
Places at Jerusalem and Bethlehem, and the example of that 
devout woman, who in her old age made the pilgrimage to 
the Holy Land, strengthened and fed the desire of Christians 
throughout the world to see the land in which the Saviour had 
lived, to visit the scenes of His life and ministry, and to pray 
at His sepulchre. 

The pilgrimage to Palestine became a meritorious work, and 
he who made it enjoyed great privileges ; he travelled under 
the protection of the law ; no toll was asked of him, and he 
found free entertainment in the hospitals erected for his use 
along the roads. His devotions at the Holy Places and his 
bath in the river Jordan were believed to have expiated the sin 
of his former life, and the shirt he had worn when he entered 
Jerusalem was laid by as his winding sheet, in which he hoped 
to go to heaven. 

The tide of pilgrimage to Palestine flowed without interrup- 
tion until the Seljukian Turks, more fanatical than the p 
Arabs, became masters of Jerusalem, and not only per- 
secuted the native Christians, but cruelly entreated, mutilated, 
robbed, and often slew the devout pilgrims. The story of their 
sufferings excited the pity and roused the indignation of Chris- 
tendom, especially when Peter the Hermit returned from p 
his pilgrimage and preached with the sanction of the 
pope a crusade. Mounted on a mule he traversed the lands, 
and all eyes turned to the gaunt monk, in his coarse hermit's 



156 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

cloak, with a crucifix in one hand, and a letter from the patri- 
arch of Jerusalem in the other, whose eyes flashed fire, and 
whose burning words depicted the tale of the Turkish outrages 
and stirred his hearers to resent them. " Christians," he cried, 
" Christ has appeared to me, saying, ' Rise, Peter, finish the 
work thou hast begun ; I will be with thee, for the hour is 
come for the cleansing of my temple.' " 

He preached with power, and thousands promised to make 
the pilgrimage of the Holy Land and recover the Holy Places 
from the power of the infidel Turks. The enthusiasm grew 
-, apace. Pope Urban H. convened a Great Council at 
Clermont, in France, and bade the vast assembly deliver 
the Holy Sepulchre. Loud rose the response, "It is the will 
of God ! it is the will of God ! " and then and there the as- 
sembly declared itself the army of God ; and every member, in 
token of his new vocation, put on his right shoulder the badge 
of a red cross. 

The movement spread with amazing rapidity through Italy, 
France, and Germany. " There was no nation so remote, no 
people so retired, as did not contribute its portion to the host. 
The Welshman left his hunting, the Scot his hills, the Dane his 
drinking party, the Norwegian^ his raw fish. Whatever was 
stored in granaries, or hoarded in chambers, to answer the hope 
of the husbandman, or the covetousness of the miser, all was 
deserted ; for the}" hungered and thirsted after Jerusalem 
alone." ^ Vast preparations were making for the war of 
Christendom against Mohammedanism, pending which, Peter 
May, the Hermit and Walter the Pennyless, impatient of 

1096 delay, departed with an ill-disciplined and ill-provided 
multitude of 80,000 men, whose outrages were so enormous, 
that, treated as outlaws wherever they went, they perished on 
the way. 

Very different was the army of Oodfre}" of Bouillon, which 

1 William of Malmesbury. 



1095-1098.] GODFREY OF BOUILLON. 157 

started not long after from the banks of the Maas. It was 
well armed, well officered, and well disciplined, num- aug. 15, 
bered 80,000 foot and 20,000 horse, and passed without ^ 096 
mishap through German}', Hungary, and Bulgaria to Constan- 
tinople. Under the walls of that cit}' the}' pitched their camp, 

waiting for five other armies of crusaders, who had r 

^ [1097 

taken different routes. In the spring following they 

crossed into Asia, and the muster showed a grand total of 

300,000 foot and 100,000 horse; adding to that number the 

wives, children, and attendants of the crusaders, the multitude 

cannot have been short of 600,000. Besides Godfrey, the chief 

leaders were Hugh of Yermandois ; Robert of Normandy, the 

son of William the Conqueror ; Robert of Flanders ; Bohemond 

of Tarentum ; Raymond of Toulouse ; and Tancred, the famous 

knight. 

Their first exploit was the siege and capture of Nice, p 
which, however, through the intrigues of the Greek 
emperor, Alexius, surrendered to him, and not to the crusaders. 
Their progress was difficult and attended with much suffering. A 
dispute between Tancred and Baldwin terminated in the latter 
leaving with his contingent, and effecting the conquest of Edessa 
in Mesopotamia, where he founded the first Christian principality 
in the East. The bulk of the army advanced to Antioch, and 
laid siege to the city. It held out for seven months, during 
which famine and sickness thinned the ranks of the crusaders. 
Among the deserters was Peter the Hermit ; at last june 3, 
the city was taken by the crusaders, who massacred 1098 
the inhabitants. But then they were besieged by a Moham- 
medan army of 200,000. Their loss from famine, June 28, 
pestilence, and desertion was enormous, but they van- 1098 
quished the Mohammedans, and the road to Jerusalem was 
open to them. 

A year after the fall of Antioch, the crusaders, now reduced 
to about 21,000, caught the first glimpse of the Holy City, 
and knelt down in devout gratitude for the unspeakable 



168 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

privilege. They wept for jo}' and buried their long sufferings 
in oblivion. 

The city was strongly fortified, and defended by a garrison of 
40,000 Mohammedans. Religious zeal and enthusiasm ani- 
mated the courage, and sustained the efforts of the crusaders, 
who, after a siege of five weeks, and a sanguinarj^ repulse, 
carried Jerusalem by storm. Godfrey was the first, and his 
brother Eustace the second, who scaled the wall and entered 
the city, rushed to the gate, and opened it to the crusaders. 
They shouted, "God is with us ! It is the will of God !" poured 
July 14, luto the strccts, and in their fury, put the wretched 

1099 inhabitants to the sword. The carnage was so dread- 
ful, that of a population of 70,000 not enough were left to bury 
the dead, and poor Christians were hired to perform the work. 
The savage cruelty of the conquering crusaders was too horrid 
to be described ; murder was mercy. Godfrey was the first to 
think of higher and nobler duties, and in the lowly garb of a 
penitent, barefooted and unarmed, went to the church of the 
Holy Sepulchre to thank God for the victory. His example 
was followed by the entire host, who, having finished the work 
of the sword, and cleansed their bodies and garments from the 
blood of the slain, went to the church of the Resurrection to 
join in the prayers of praise and thanksgiving. 

Eight days after the capture of the city Godfrey was by 
July 22, acclamation saluted king of Jerusalem ; but he refused 
1099 to be called king, and would only assume the style of 
" Defender of the Holy Sepulchre " ; and when they offered to 
crown him, he declined, saying that he would never consent 
to wear a golden crown, where the King of kings had worn a 
crown of thorns. That speech was sublime. 

His kingdom, or whatever it was, did not trouble him long, 
for he soon fell sick, and the cherished desire of his heart, that 
July 8, he might be permitted to die near the Holy Sepulchre, 

1100 was granted him ; he died young, his brief reign was 
marked by firmness, prudence, and moderation, and his body 



1099-llOO.J 



GODFREY OF BOUILLON. 



159 



was interred on Mount Calvary near the Holy Sepulchre. The 
great poet Tasso has sounded his praises in his ''Jerusalem 
Delivered." 

Thus was the Holy Sepulchi'e delivered from the Arabs. 
Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, succeeded him and assumed 
the title of King of Jerusalem. Bohemond became Prince of 
Antioch. The three kingdoms or principalities of Edessa, 
Antioch, and Jerusalem increased in size and strength, and 
resisted for about fifty years the attacks of the Mohammedans. 

REFERENCES. 

Milman, "Latin Christianity," vol. IV. pp. 15-54; Mosheim, 
"Ecclesiastical History," vol. H. pp. 123-132, N.Y. 1821; Duller, 
"History of the German People," vol. I. pp. 296-300; Michaud, 
" History of the Crusades." 



[Z ZH 



160 MEDIEVAL HISTORY, [A.D. 



1435-1506] COLUMBUS. 

Though the American Continent may have been visited by 
adventurous Norsemen more than eight hundred years ago, no 
sure trace of their presence has been found here, and the true 
record of their voyage has probably perished, and was certainly 
unknown in Europe in the middle of the fifteenth century. 

At that time the most learned men of the Old World were 
not only very ignorant about the geography of the earth, but 
held very ridiculous views. They thought that the sea, beyond 
the islands known to them, was a watery chaos whose waves 
rose to the height of lofty mountains, and rolled in irresisti- 
ble cataracts into bottomless abysses, which would swallow up 
any vessels daring enough to approach them. The spherical 
shape of the earth, they imagined, gave to the ocean a slope 
towards the antipodes, so steep that though vessels might sail 
down that slope, they would^ever be able to return. 

They knew that there was the great ocean, and believed, as 
we learn from a map made in the year a.d. 1492, that it sepa- 
rated Europe from Asia ; in the centre of that map, on the line 
of the equator, is placed a large sand-bank, and about midway 
between that sand-bank and the East Indies appears Japan, sur- 
rounded by many islands. It was the best map extant, and the 
best scientific guide Columbus could procure or construct before 
he undertook his voyage of discovery. 

He was the eldest son of a Genoese wool-carder, and had two 
brothers and a sister. Christopher was born in 1435 or 1436, 
and from a child showed great fondness for the sea. His father 
sent him to Pa via, where he studied geometry, geography, as- 
tronomy, astrology, and navigation, and learnt the little the 



1435-1506.] COLUMBUS. 161 

schools could teach him, without much difficulty. In his four- 
teenth 3'ear he went to sea, and in consequence of a shipwreck, 
caused by his vessel taking fire in the roads of Lisbon, ^ 
settled in that city. By that time he had long attained 
manhood, and his pluck and courage may be learned from the 
way he made his escape from the burning ship. He threw him- 
self into the water, seized an oar, with which he supported him- 
self, and swam ashore. 

He had been in the habit of drawing maps and charts before, 
and their sale had afforded him a scanty support. At Lisbon 
he followed this occupation with considerable success, for his 
maps and globes were the best that could be had, and the Por- 
tuguese mariners, who prized them very highly, would constantly 
frequent his shop, and discourse with him of the sea, of adven- 
tures, and of discoveries. At Lisbon he fell in love with 
Felipa de Perestrello, the daughter of an Italian nobleman in the 
Portuguese service, and married her ; she was the mother of his 
son Diego. From the papers of his father-in-law he gleaned 
much accurate information about the distant seas of India, which 
he embodied in his maps. 

He knew that the earth was round, but, underrating its cir- 
cumference by some thousands of miles, concluded that the 
passage to Asia across the Atlantic, of which he was fully con- 
vinced, was much shorter than the navigators usually thought. 
This supposed nearness of the Indies seemed to him to be con- 
firmed by the testimony of the most experienced sailors and 
pilots. Some had seen, floating off the Azores, branches of 
trees unknown in Europe ; others had picked up pieces of wood, 
carved, but not with steel tools ; they spoke of huge pine-trees, 
hollowed into canoes, with room for 80 rowers ; and even of 
corpses of white or copper-colored men, whose features were 
unlike those of the known races of Europe, Africa, and Asia. 

The solution of this great m3'stery of discovering the short 
passage to Asia, and to secure the means necessary to its 
accomplishment, became the purpose of his life, to which he de- 



162 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

voted all his energies. Prejudice, envy, indifference, ridicule, 
the loss of his business, and of his beloved wife, obstacles and 
difficulties which beset his path for many long and weary 3'ears, 
could not break his courage, and make him abandon his projects. 
At last he found a powerful and enthusiastic friend in the per- 
son of Isabella, the queen of Castile, who, in the extremity of 
his disappointments, undertook to be at the charge of his pro- 
posed expedition, saying: "I will undertake the enterprise 
alone, for my crown of Castile. I will pawn my diamonds and 
jewels to meet the expenses of the expedition." A treaty 
April 17, between Ferdinand and Isabella and Columbus was 
i 492 signed in the plain of Granada, in virtue of which he 
was made hereditary admiral and viceroy of all the lands which 
his discoveries might secure to Spain, and promised the tenth 
part of all the profit that might accrue from them. 

The expedition was fitted out, and sailed from Palos in An- 
AuG. 3, dalusia. It consisted of three ships, the Santa Maria^ 
1492 the Fi7ita, and the Nina. The first of these only was 
a fair-sized and decked vessel, and had four masts ; the others 
had only half-decks, and only two masts, one with a square, the 
other with a triangular lateen-sail. They carried provisions 
for a year, and their entire crews numbered only 120 men. 

After a quick run to the Canaries, where he spent three weeks 
to refit, he began the exploration of the unknown Atlantic. His 
sailors began to be afraid, and became utterly prostrate in body 
and mind ; Columbus encouraged them with the glowing descrip- 
tion of the beauty and wealth of the lands to which they were 
sailing. This seemed to cheer them up, but they were fright- 
ened at the great distance, and he was obliged to subtract from 
the record a certain number of miles, in order to make them 
believe that they had only gone half the distance they had really 
traversed. 

The discovery (until then unknown) that the magnetic needle 
began to vary not only disconcerted Columbus, but filled the 
sailors with consternation, who believed that they were going 



1492.] COL UMB US, 163 

to certain destruction. He soothed their fears with the ingeni- 
ous explanation of the variation of the needle, as caused by the 
revolution of new stars round the pole, to which the compass 
responded. Thus they progressed for many a day amid hopes 
and fears. Columbus hardly slept, and nothing escaped his 
eye ; the appearance of a heron and a tropical bird was pro- 
phetic of land ; the waves wei'e laden with perfume ; plants were 
floating on them, still full of sap, and a little sailor, in the shape 
of a live crab, clung to a tuft of grass. The sea presently 
changed its color and its temperature, betokening a shallow or 
uneven bottom. They surely were nearing land, and welcomed 
it every evening and every morning in the shifting clouds. 

They had been sailing before the trade- wind, which wafted 
them they knew not whither, but a change of wind from the 
opposite quarter revived their hopes, to be followed by disap- 
pointment, and the murmurs of discontent and despair ; they 
thought they were approaching the cataracts of the ocean, to be 
hurled into the bottomless abyss, and talked of compelling the 
pilots to put about, and of throwing Columbus overboard. He 
remained calm, and defied them by his firm and resolute 
bearing. 

On the 7th of October flocks of birds pursued their flight in a 
south-westerly direction, and Columbus steered hopefully in the 
same course for two days ; but when the third day came round, 
and no land in sight, the despair of the crew changed into fury, 
and they roundly refused to sail further. Columbus reasoned 
with them, but their clamor increasing, he resolutely told them 
that it was useless to murmur, as, no matter what might happen, 
he was resolved to j^ersevere. 

At sunrise of the second day the sailors picked up a plank 
hewn by an axe, a carved stick, a bough of thorn with berries, 
and a bird's-nest built on a branch, full of eggs, on which the 
parent bird was sitting The mutineers took courage, implored 
the pardon of Columbus, and sang praises to God. On the 
night of that day, Columbus saw a gleam of fire, coming and 



164 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

going, on the level of the sea. Two of his friends identified it 
as a light on the shore. 

Before daybreak a cannon-shot, fired by the Pinta, which 
was saihng in advance, confirmed his expectations. It was the 
signal, agreed upon, of land in sight, and the jubilant shout 
of "Land ho ! " arose from all the ships. The sun rose, and 
the delighted adventurers beheld a beautiful island smiling in 
his rays. 

The first impulse of all was to hasten ashore, but Columbus, 
conscious of the importance of the discovery, and grateful for 
the providential fulfilment of his hopes, felt that the soil of the 
New World, as yet untrodden by European foot, ought to be 
approached in a manner worthy of God, of Spain, and of him- 
self, and therefore restrained himself and his crew from landing 
forthwith ; he donned his admiral's uniform, took the flag of Spain, 
and to the strains of martial music, led the boats to shore. He 
was the first to land ; his first act was one of solemn and grateful 
devotion : he knelt down, kissed the ground, and wept for joy. 
When he raised his head, he said : " Almighty and eternal God, 
who, by the energy of thy creative word, hast made the firma- 
ment, the earth, and the sea : blessed and glorified be th}^ name 
in all places ! May th}^ majesty and dominion be exalted for- 
ever and ever, as thou hast permitted thy holy name to be made 
known and spread by the most humble of thy servants in this 
hitherto unknown portion of thy kingdom." 

He then baptized this land in the name of Christ, — the island 
of San Salvador, — and raising his sword, took solemn posses- 
sion of it in the name and under the flag of Spain. Then all 
his men, in the exuberance of their joy and gratitude, and pro- 
foundly penitent, fell at his feet, kissed his hands, and sounded 
his praises. 

The inhabitants of the island, in their native costume of cop- 
per-colored skin marked with bright pigments, stood by in gen- 
tle wonderment and admiration, and deemed that the Spaniards 
and their ships had come from heaven. They called their 



1492.] COLUMBUS. 1G5 

island " Guanaliani," which is one of the Bahama oct. 12, 
group, and was discovered on October 12. 1492 

The Indians had adorned their persons with ornaments of 
pure gold, which excited the cupidity of the Spaniards. They 
cheerfully exchanged them for the merest trifles, and when tlie 
Spaniards asked them by signs whence that metal came, they 
pointed to the south, and in that direction they sailed in quest 
of their imao-inary land of gold, and discovered first 

Oct. 27, 1492 

Cuba, and soon afterwards Hayti, to which Colum- 

^ T-r. . 1 -r-r " . , ^tEC. 6,1492 

bus gave the name ot Hispaniola. Havmg lost, 
through the carelessness of his pilot, one of his vessels, and 
believing that he was in sight of the gold country, he built a 
fort, in which he placed a garrison of 40 men under the com- 
mand of Pedro de Arana, and after instructing them to main- 
tain friendly relations with the Indians, set out on his return to 
Europe to announce his triumph. 

The voyage was very tempestuous, and Columbus was not 
only in peril of life from the sea, but from his mutinous and 
superstitious crew, who talked of throwing him overboard in 
order to pacify the angr}' element. Meanwhile the good man, 
indifferent about their moods, thought only of their safety, and 
how, if they must perish in the storm, the record of his discov- 
er^^ might not be wholly lost. So he wrote brief accounts of 
his voyage on strips of parchment, closed them up, some in 
rolls of wax, others in cedar cases, and threw them into the sea, 
hoping that after his death they might be carried to the shore. 

Fortunately the water-logged vessel survived the storms, and 
Columbus, covered with glory and honors, was permitted to tell 
the grand stor}' of his discovery to the sovereigns of Portugal 
and Spain, to the great and the learned, and to the delighted 
people who, with one accord, thought that "None could com- 
pare witli him." 

What became of those cases with the strips of parchment is 
not known ; but not very long ago a European sailor, while get- 
ting ballast on the coast of Africa, opposite Gibraltar, picked 



166 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

up a petrified cocoanut and gave it to his captain. Curious as 
to the internal condition of the nut, he opened it, and found in 
the shell a piece of parchment with some writing on it in the 
Gothic character. A Spanish scholar deciphered it, and read : 
' ' We cannot survive the storm one day longer. We are be- 
tween Spain and the newly discovered Eastern isles. If the 
caravel founders, may some one pick up this testimony ! — 
Christopher Columbus.^' 

If the caravel which bore Columbus had foundered, and the 
other cases with the strips of parchment had been as long in 
the sea or on unknown coasts as the cocoanut-shell, the discov- 
ery of America might not have been divulged until the year 
1851, or 358 years after that great event. 

The honors awarded to Columbus roused the envy and jeal- 
ousy of not a few. One day when he was dining with Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella a courtier taunted him with the question if 
he thought that no one else would have discovered the New 
World if he had not been born. 

Columbus did not answer it, but taking an egg in his hand, 
held it up, and asked the whole company present, if any one 
could make it stand uprights _A11 were perplexed and gave it 
up. Columbus cracked the shell at one end, and of course 
made it stand upright. A better, a more noble, and a more 
modest repl}^ he could not have made. 

Columbus spent about six months in Spain prior to his 
Sept. 25, second expedition, which consisted of three large 
1493 ships and fourteen caravels, and numbered 1,500 men, 
of whom some were priests, but most, unprincipled adventurers. 
The fleet left Cadiz, and steering on a more southerly course, 
discovered the island of Guadeloupe, passed through the group 
of the Caribbees, and soon made Hispaniola ; it was night when 
he reached the gulf in which he had planted his colony, and he 
fired a salute to announce his return. It remained unanswered, 
and at daybreak he beheld with sorrow the ruins of his fort 
and the bones of the Spaniards bleaching on the shore. He 



1493-1494.] COLUMBUS, 167 

wept over their crimes which the natives had avenged in their 
death, and founded another settlement in a different mat, 
part of the island, which he called Isabella. 1494 

He then cruised along the coast of Cuba, which he thought 
was a continent, and discovered Jamaica. In Cuba, where he 
established friendly relations with the natives, he held a relig- 
ious service, at which they were present. At its close one of 
their old men said to him : " What thou hast done is well, for 
it appears to be thy worship of the universal God. They 
say that thou comest to these lands with great might and irre- 
sistible power. Now hear what our fathers have told us. 
When b}^ the will of God the souls of men depart from their 
bodies, they go some to a land witliout sun and without trees, 
others to a region of beauty and delight, according as they 
have acted ill or well here below by doing evil or good to their 
fellows. If, therefore, thou art to die like us, have a care to 
do no wrong to those who have never injured thee." 

Las Casas, who relates this discourse, is good authority. It 
had been well for the Spaniards, had they practised that un- 
known religion whose simple precepts and pure morals con- 
trasted so strongly with the vices and crimes which so speedily 
turned the New World, then verily a paradise of God, into a 
pandemonium of wickedness. 

The natives of the West Indies, as Columbus found them, 
were a good and noble race. "There is nowhere in the uni- 
verse," he said, " a better nation or a better eountr}^ They 
love their neighbors as themselves : their language is always soft 
and gracious, and the smile of kindness is ever on their lips." 

Columbus, after a long and fatiguing voyage, returned to 
Isabella in a dying state, and lay for a long while unconscious 
on a bed of sickness. He awoke to rejoice with devout grati- 
tude in the providential presence of his brother Bartholomew, 
Vviio had come out to his assistance, and to whom, during the 
long months of his sickness, he committed the government of 
the island. 



168 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D 

The cruelty and perfidy of the Spaniards roused the natives, 
but they liad to succumb to their oppressors, who hunted them 
by means of trained dogs, and sold them as slaves. Columbus, 
on his recovery, restored order and induced them to submit to 
the payment of a small tribute in gold and produce, " rather as 
a token of alliance than of slavery." 

In consequence of calumnies set on foot by his enemies at 
-l court, Columbus was recalled ; but having established 
his innocence, and being empowered to renew his dis- 
mat30, coveries, he fitted out a third expedition of six vessels, 
1498 and set sail. Steering more to the southward, he dis- 
covered and named the island of Trinidad ; he also coasted near 
the mouth of the Orinoco, the true continent, and though he 
spent a niglit under his sail on the mainland, he had no suspicion 
that it was the shore of the unknown world. 

Revisiting Hispaniola, he found to his sorrow that the affairs 
of the island were in most distressing condition. Ojeda, a 
daring adventurer, stole the natives and shipped them off as 
slaves. Roldan, an overseer, with a band of the refuse of 
Spain, had set up a sort of rival government, and intrigued 
with the neighboring tribes^ against the authority of Bar- 
tholomew. Complete anarchy prevailed. A young Spaniard 
had won the heart and desired to marry the daughter of queen 
Anacoana, famed throughout the island for her beaut}', 
poetical talent, and wealth. She was the widow of the chief 
whom Ojeda had stolen, handcuflfed, and hurried on shipboard, 
and who had died on the vo3'age. Roldan opposed the mar- 
riage, seized the young lover, and sent him away to be tried at 
Isabella. Ovando on an expedition of survey was kindly and 
hospitably entertained by Anacoana, who at his instance had 
invited 30 Indian chiefs to be present at the festivities she 
had arranged in honor of the Spaniards. The}' proposed a 
sham fight to be witnessed by the queen and the chiefs from 
a balcony, while the unarmed people stood around in the open 
space. At a given signal, the cavalry sabred the people and 



1496-1500.] COLUMBUS. 169 

rode them down, the infantry surrounded the queen's house, 
set it on fire, and doomed her guests to death among the 
flames. Anacoana was hung. 

The horrid deed maddened the Indians to desperate resis- 
tance, but their fate was sealed, and could not be averted by 
the virtue and kindness of Columbus, who had asked the court 
to send him a judge of high rank to aid him in the restoration 
of order. 

The enemies of Columbus had poisoned the mind of Ferdi- 
nand against him, and he sent Bobadilla, clothed with vaguely 
defined powers, to Hispaniola. On his arrival he had Colum- 
bus cast into chains, confined in a dungeon, and at last, on 
the worthless depositions of as worthless witnesses, p 
adjudged him worthy of banishment, and ordered him 
to be sent to Spain. 

When the vessel had sailed, the commanders would fain have 
removed his fetters, but he refused, saying: "No, m}^ sover- 
eigns have written to me to submit to Bobadilla. It is in their 
names that I have been put in these irons, which I will wear 
until they themselves order them to be removed ; and I will 
afterwards preserve them as relics and memorials of the reward 
of my sendees." 

That promise he kept, for he carried them with him wherever 
he went, had them hung up in his sight, and in his will ordered 
them to be put by his side in his coflSn. 

His outrageous treatment roused the indignation of Cadiz, 
and especially of Isabella, who commanded that his chains 
should be changed into a robe of honor, and his jailers re- 
placed by a royal escort, charged to bring him to Granada. 
He fell at her knees, and his eloquent defence procured his 
instant acquittal of the charges, which the sovereigns refused 
even to examine. 

Bobadilla was recalled, and replaced by Ovando, whose want 
of humanity is recorded in former and subsequent paragraphs. 

Although nearly 70 years old, Columbus, after all his suffer- 



170 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. [A.D. 

ings, was impatient of rest, and undertook a fourth expedition, 
MAKCH2, in which he was joined by his brother Bartholomew 
1502 and his son Fernando. It consisted of four poor ves- 
sels whose crews mustered only 150 strong. He embarked at 
Cadiz and had stormy weather ; the squadron lay off Hispaniola 
with broken masts, torn sails, and short of water and provis- 
ions ; he knew that a terrible hurricane was about to break out, 
and despatched a boat to Ovando asking leave to take shelter 
at Isabella. Ovando refused it without mercy, and the old man 
sadly and indignantly found a safe retreat in another part of the 
island beyond the jurisdiction of the governor. After the hur- 
ricane, he went to Jamaica, and landed on the continent in the 
bay of Honduras. 

For 60 days he cruised about in stormy weather in search of 
the passage which he thought united the Atlantic and the Pacific, 
and lost a vessel with 50 men at the mouth of a river which in 
memory of the calamity he called El Rio del Desastre^ or the 
River of Disaster. 

In their search of gold the men of Columbus became embroiled 

with the Indians, and after much loss and great sufferings, his 

three crazy caravels sailed slowly towards Hispaniola ; one 

foundered as the}^ were nearing^the shore, and the others held 

-| together just long enough to be beached on the sand 

of an unknown bay in Jamaica. 

He tied them together with cables, connected their decks with 
planks, and covered them with an awning ; and though the 
natives furnished him with provisions, the presence of a muti- 
nous crew made his condition perilous in the extreme. His only 
hope was the help of Ovando, and an Indian canoe the only craft 
he could provide for trusty messengers to traverse the fifty 
leagues of sea which separated him from Hispaniola. 

Such messengers were found in the persons of the heroic 
Diego Mendez and Bartholomew Fiesco, who volunteered to 
perform, and did perform, the daring feat of crossing the sea in 
frail canoes. 



1502-1506.] COLUMBUS. 171 

After ten clays they reached Hispaniola, and the faithful 
Meudez delivered the admiral's message to Ovaudo. But the 
help it begged was delayed for many months, during which 
Columbus and his brother were exposed to the angry insults and 
the violent a,ttempts of the rebellious crews. At length he sent 
a barrel of wine and a side of bacon by the hands of Escobar, 
promising the speedy despatch of a vessel. After many weary 
months, a vessel which Mendez had fitted up at the expense of 
Columbus, accompanied by another sent by Ovando, arrived, 
and rescued the aged admiral from his terrible situation. 

After spending some time with Ovando, he landed, js-qv. 7, 
broken in health, but not in spirit, at San Lucar, in 1504 
Spain. 

His kind protectress, queen Isabella, died soon after his 
arrival, and he himself closed his eventful and noble mat 20, 
career in poverty at Valladolid. 1506 

Ferdinand, ashamed of his neglect and ingratitude to the 
man who gave him an empire, gave him a royal funeral and 
erected to his honor a monument inscribed with the motto, " To 
Castile and Leon Columbus gave a New World." His remains, 
and afterwards those of his son Diego, were removed from their 
successive resting-places in Spanish cathedrals, and interred, in 
1536, in the principal chapel of the cathedral at San Domingo, 
but disinterred again, and removed to Havana, in the island of 
Cuba. 

The American Continent should have been called after his 
name, as that of its first discoverer, one of the best and noblest 
of men who crowned the shining qualities of knowledge, wis- 
dom, enterprise, and valor, with the yet nobler graces of 
philanthropy, the forgiveness of injuries, and true piety, 

REFERENCES. 

Bancroft, " History of the United States " ; Prescott, " Ferdinand 
and Isabella"; W. Irving, "Life and Voyages of Columbus"; Lamar- 
tiue, " Cokmibus." 



172 MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 



CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY. 

A.D. 527. Justinian I. emperor at Constantinople. 

529. The " Code " set forth April 7. 

532. Sedition of the Nika at Constantinople. 

533. The " Pandects " or " Digests " set forth Dec. 30. 
536. Belisarius enters Rome. 

546. Totila takes Rome. 

548. Belisarius recalled from Italy. 

554. Narses overthrows the Gothic monarchy. Narses exarch. 

5P5. Death of Belisarius, March 13. Death of Justinian, Nov. 14. 

569. Birth of Mohammed. 

609. Mohammed assumes the character of a prophet, and 

preaches at Mecca. 

612. Mohammed begins to proclaim his revelations. 

622. Mohammed's flight from Mecca, July 16, the Hegira, or 

Hejira, the era of the Mohammedans. 

630. Capture of Mecca. 

632. Death of Mohammed, aged 63, June 8. 

682. Birth of Boniface, or Winfrid. 

723. Boniface, bishop of Germany. 

732. Boniface, archbishop of Germany. 

742. Birth of Charlemagne. 

752. Childeric dethroned, „and Pepin crowned and proclaimed 

king of the Franks. 

755. Martyrdom of Boniface. 

756. Pepin bestows the exarchate upon the pope. Origin of 

the papal temporal sovereignty. 
768. Charlemagne and Carloman succeed Pepin. 

771. Charlemagne sole king of the Franks. 

772. Commencement of the Saxon wars. 

774. Overthrow of the kingdom of the Lombards by Charle- 
magne. 

778. Charlemagne conquers the Spanish Marche. 

786. Wittekind and Albion submit to Charlemagne and are 
baptized. 

795. Death of pope Hadrian. Accession of pope Leo HI. 

800. Charlemagne is crowned emperor of the West, by Leo, at 
Rome, on Christmas Day. 



CHRONOLOGICAL SURVEY. I73 

A.D. 814. Death of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapelle. 

849. Birth of Alfred the Great. 

871. Alfred the Great, kmg of England. 

876. The Danes invade Wessex. 

878. The Danes, defeated by Alfred, obtain the Danelagh. 

893. The Danes, under Hasting, invade England. 

901. Death of Alfred the Great. 

1072. The Seljukian Turks conquer Jerusalem. 

1094. Peter the Hermit proclaims a crusade. 

1096. The First Crusade under Godfrey of Bouillon, etc. 

1097. The crusaders take Nice. 

1098. The crusaders take Antioch. 

1099. The crusaders take Jerusalem. Godfrey of Bouillon, 

*' Defender of the Holy Sepulchre." 

1100. Death of Godfrey. His brother Baldwin becomes king 

of Jerusalem. 
1435. Birth of Columbus. 

1492. Columbus discovers America. 

1493. Second voyage of Columbus. 

1498. Third voyage of Columbus. Discovery of Trinidad and 

New Spain. 
1498. Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope, and 

arrives at Calicut, in India, May. John and Sebastian 

Cabot discover Newfoundland and explore the coast of 

North America. 
1500. Columbus is sent back to Sj)ain in chains. 
1502. Fourth and last voyage of Columbus. 1502-1504. 
1504. Columbus returns to Spain. 
1506. Death of Columbus. 



^^ 



III. MODERN HISTORY, 



III. 
MODERN HISTORY. 



D>«t:c 



MARTIN LUTHER. [i 483-1546 

The father of Martin Luther was a humble miner atEisleben, 
in the Harz region, and his mother a good woman of exemplary 
virtue. Martin was born Nov. 10, 1483. He went to school, 
first at Mansfekl, and afterwards at Magdeburg and Eisenach. 
In the latter place he attracted the notice and found a hospita- 
ble home under the roof of a good lad}" of the name of Cotta. 
The wa}' she came to take notice of him was peculiar : Martin 
being very poor, was wont, like other poor boys in those days, 
to earn an honest penny by singing at the doors of charitable 
people ; his good appearance, serious demeanor, and fine tenor 
voice struck the worthy Frau Cotta, and thus he became an 
inmate of the ma3'or's house, for her husband was the mayor or 
burgomaster of Eisenach. 

From that place he went to the university of Erfurt, where 
he studied law, the classics, and philosophy. One day p 
he saw in the library, for the first time in his life, a 
complete Latin Bible, and was surprised at the volume of its 
contents, for until then he had thought that his service-book 
contained all of the Scriptures. His interest being thus excited, 
two circumstances arose about this time, which induced him, 
although he had taken the degree of a Doctor of Philosophy, to 
exchange the study of the law for that of theology. 



176 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

One day, as he was about to pay a visit to his parents, he 
went to say good-bye to Alexis, his most intimate friend, and 
was shocked to find him assassinated in his room. Returning 
from that visit, as he was travelling along the road in a heavy 
thunderstorm, a thunderbolt struck the earth so close to him, 
that his escape seemed a miracle. These two incidents deter- 
-1 mined his choice, and led him to spend two years 
in the Augustine convent at Erfurt, where he was 
ordained priest. 

His fine scholarship procured him an appointment as teacher 

-| in the newly-founded university of Wittenberg, and 

his eloquence, which was said, by one of his friends, 

" to have been born, not on his lips, but in his soul," led to 

his election as a public preacher. 

The order to which he belonged sent him on a mission to 
-| Rome, and upon his return to Wittenberg, he pursued 
with great enthusiasm the studj' of the Greek and 
Hebrew tongues. It is said that he put a literal construction on 
the solemn words of the oath which he was required to take at 
the time of his promotion to the degree of a Doctor of Divinity, 
and agreeably to their tenor resolved ' ' to devote his whole life to 
stud}', and faithfully to expound and defend the Holy Scripture." 

Pope Leo X., for the purpose of raising funds for the comple- 
tion of the church of St. Peter, at Rome, proclaimed a general 
pardon, or plenar}' indulgence, and committed the matter for 
German}' to the elector archbishop of Mentz, who delegated its 
execution to the mendicant order of the Dominicans. John 
Tetzel, a member of that order, gave great offence by his 
methods of offering these indulgences, without any reference to 
repentance or amendment, for a certain sum of money, the pay- 
ment of which, he assured the people, would save them. "At 
the very instant," shouted the Dominican from his pulpit, "that 
the money rattles at the bottom of the chest, the soul escapes 
from purgatory, and flies to heaven." It is even said that he 
carried with him two chests, one containing the indulgences. 



1505-1520.] MARTIN LUTHER. 177 

which were dispensed to those who dropped their money into 
the other, and that the latter bore the inscription in rhyme 
which has just been cited in prose. 

The abuse was^ shocking, and tlie notorious and scandalous 
misconduct of the venders of indulgences roused the public 
indignation, to which Luther gave expression by affixing to the 
church door at Wittenberg 95 theses, or propositions, oct. si, 
directed against indulgences, which he declared himself 1517 
ready to defend against all opponents. Such opponents appeared, 
and Luther answered them. Rejoinder followed rejoinder, and 
the dispute spread so rapidly that the pope interposed his au- 
thorit}', and summoned Luther to Rome. The latter preferred 
to have the matter decided in Germanj", and through the 
intervention of the elector Frederic, it was referred to august, 
cardinal Cajetan, the pope's legate at Augsburg. 1518 

The legate was imperious, cut short all argument, and required 

Luther to retract. He refused ; and the cardinal, at the close 

of three interviews, said, "Retract, or return no more!" 

Luther left Augsburg, and the cardinal wrote to the elector 

either to send him to Rome for trial, or to banish him out of 

his country. The prince saw fit not to comply with the demand, 

and the dispute for a time was the subject of r 

1 / T 1, • ^ 1 * • [1518-1519 

sundry conferences, winch, mstead of composn:ig 

it, widened the differences between the opposing parties. 

One of the Catholic divines, Dr. Eck, of Ingolstadt, after the 
last conference, went to report the matter at Rome, and re- 
turned, armed with a papal bull, denouncing certain passages in 
the writings of Luther as heretical, and requiring him, on pain 
of excommunication, to retract them within 60 days. 

The excitement caused by the publication of the bull was in- 
tense. In some places the writino-s of Luther were ■- 

I 520 
l)urnt ; in others, the angr}' poi)ulace tore the bull to 

pieces, and the authorities for])ade its publication. Dr. Eck 
was hooted at Leipzig, and liad to flee for his life. Luther, in- 
stead of retracting, maintained the struggle with increasing 



178 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

vehemence, and brought on an irrevocable rupture with Rome, 
first, by an appeal from the pope's decision to a General Coun- 
cil, and secondly, by inviting the university of Wittenberg to 
Dec. 10, see the bull, and other papal writings, burnt before 
1520 the Elster-gate. At the set time, he first threw the 
Decretals into the flames, and flung after them the bull, say- 
ing, " Since thou hast vexed the Holy One of the Lord, may 
everlasting fire vex and consume thee" (Josh. 7, 25). 

The movement led by Luther was very popular throughout 
Germany, and his heroic courage the absorbing theme of con- 
versation. Encouraged by the popular voice, and the support 
of powerful princes, Luther, furnished with an imperial safe- 
conduct, went to appear before the Diet of Worms, and before 
Apr. 17-19, the cmpcror Charles Y., his brother, the archduke 

1521 Ferdinand, a numerous assemblage of princes and 
nobles, of the papal nuncios, and the ambassadors of foreign 
potentates, of the hierarchy of the empire, in all 204 persons, 
representing the power of the world, in answer to the ques- 
tion, " Will you, or will you not, retract?" made this memora- 
ble confession : ' ' Unless I am convinced by the testimony of 
Scripture, or by the clearest reasoning, I cannot and I will not 
retract, for it is unsafe for a Christian to speak against his con- 
science." And then looking round on the mighty assembly be- 
fore which he stood, and which held his life in its hands, he 
said, "Here I stand; I cannot do otherwise; may God help 
me ! Amen ! " 

The Diet was thunderstruck ; many of the princes found it 
difficult to conceal their admiration, and the emperor remarked, 
" This monk speaks with an intrepid heart and unshaken cour- 
age." 

" If you do not retract," said the chancellor, "the emperor 
and the states of the empire will consult what course to adopt 
against an incorrigible heretic." 

All efforts to make him change his mind proved useless ; he 
was furnished with an imperial letter of safe-conduct, and bid- 



1520-1525.] MARTIN LUTHER. 179 

den to return home within the space of 21 days. He left 
Worms, but a few days after his departure an imperial april26. 
edict was issued, describing Luther as a madman and may 8. 
a demoniac, and requiring all men to seize and deliver to the 
emperor Luther and his adherents, and to destroy his writings 
by fire, or otherwise. 

Meanwhile the elector of Saxony had provided for his safety. 
In the Thuringian forest his carriage was surprised by five 
armed and masked horsemen, whom his companions and atten- 
dants mistook for enemies, but who were friends in disguise ; 
for the elector had devised this ruse as the onlj- means of saving 
him from certain death. The friends of Luther believed him in 
the hands of his enemies, but he had found a safe asylum in the 
fortified castle of the Wartburg, near Eisenach, to which the 
masked men took him. They made him exchange his monk's 
costume for military garments, enjoining him to let his beard 
and hair grow, and passed him off as Knight George. In the 
solitude of that lofty, ancient castle he spent ten months, and 
employed himself with the translation of the New Testament into 
the vernacular, and the composition of theological treatises. 

News of an alarming character was brought to him. Carlstadt, 
a zealous but indiscreet friend of the Reformation, had occa- 
sioned a state of lamentable disorder at Wittenberg, where the 
abolition of the Mass had been followed by the wanton destruc- 
tion of altars, and the burning of pictures, images, and confes- 
sionals. Luther returned to the scene of his former labors, 
and speedily restored order by wise and temperate march 3, 
counsels. 1522 

The marriage of Luther with Katharina de Bora, one of nine 
nuns, who, under the influence of his teaching, had r,coc 
emancipated themselves from their religious vows, 
gave great offence to the Catholics, but doubtless made him 
more happ}'. 

The movement of the Reformation, which spread apace, occa- 
sioned numerous changes in the government and service of the 



180 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Church, of which the most important were, the abolition of the 
Mass, and the administration of the Lord's Supper in such wise 
that communicants partook of the wine and the bread. The 
images of saints were removed from the churches, the worship 
was conducted in the German language, the clergy were per- 
mitted to marry, and the vows of monks and nuns were declared 
to have no binding force. The doctrines of the Reformation 
were adopted in Saxony, Hesse, parts of Prussia, and in the 
cities of Magdeburg, Nuremberg, Hamburg, Strassburg, Frank- 
fort, etc. 

For the better instruction of the people the Larger and the 
Lesser Catechisms were set forth in the same year in which the 

-1 Catholics at the Diet of Spires carried the resolution 
that where the edict of Worms could not be executed 
without fear of revolution, no further reform should be allowed. 
This resolution was unacceptable to the Reformers, who pro- 
tested against it, and thus arose the name of Protestants. 

Another Diet was held in the following year at Augsburg, at 

-| which Melanchthon presented the confession of faith, 
which is known as the Augsburg Confession, and 
marks the triumph of the Reformation. The Diet lasted five 
months, and ended in the promulgation of a severe decree, 
abolishing all the changes introduced, and commanding the 
Reformers, until the meeting of a General Council, to restore 
everything to ancient custom and usage, on pain of incurring 
the indignation and vengeance of the emperor. The decree 
remained a dead letter, but led to a powerful league or alliance, 

-1 known as the League of Smalcald, in which nine princes 
and eleven imperial cities solemnly bound themselves 
to defend their religious liberty against the dangers with which 
they were threatened by the decree of Augsburg. 

The invasion of Germany by the Turks, who had advanced as 
far as Vienna, was favorable to the Reformation, for the emperor 
stood in need of succors against that enemy, which the Protestant 
princes refused as long as the edicts of Worms and Augsburg 



1529-1546.] MARTIN LUTHER. 181 

remained in force, and was compelled to agree to the treaty of 
peace, concluded at Nuremberg, in which the Protestant r 
princes promised to furnish a subsidy towards the 
conduct of the Turkish war and to acknowledge Ferdinand 
lawful king of the Romans, while the emperor engaged to annul 
the obnoxious edicts, and to allow the Lutherans the free and 
unmolested exercise of their religion until the whole matter 
should be settled by a General Council, or a Diet of the 
empire. 

The wars against the Turks and the French lasted about 
twelve years, during which the Reformation gathered much 
strength. The Protestants neitiier attended the General Coun- 
cil at Trent in the Tyrol, which was convened after the r- 

1 545 
peace had been restored, nor the Diet at Ratisbon, 

which took place in the following year, and aware that the 
emperor and the pope were thinking of war, prepared to defend 
their creed with the sword. 

But Luther did not live to see that terrible blow struck. Re- 
duced in strength, he had gone on a mission of reconciliation to 
Eislebeu, and caught a violent cold. He took to bed feb. is, 
and ended his life in the place where he was born, in 1546 
the sixty- third year of his life. His remains were removed to 
Wittenberg, and interred in the castle church, where a brass 
tablet indicates his resting-place. 

The Reformation, as a religious movement, has been, and 
alwaj'S will be, judged according to the religious convictions and 
sympathies of men. The descendants of the Reformers, and all 
who value Protestantism as a step in the direction of liberty, 
will ever cherish the work, and honor the memory of Luther, as 
tliat of an intrepid champion of the faith, and an apostle of 
liberty. 

It is impossible to disprove that Luther was a grand and 
noble character, and probably the most popular man that ever 
lived in Germany. His diligence was wonderful, and in one 
field at least his greatness is undisputed, that of the language of 



182 



MODERN HISTORY. 



[A.D. 



his country, which he purified from the jargon dialect, and 
raised to a remarkable degree of perfection. He wrote a large 
number of books, but his crowning merit is the translation of 
the Bible from the original tongues into German, which he be- 
gan in the solitude of the Wartburg, and completed in 1534. It 
is destined to live as long as the German nation, and to transmit 
the name and greatness of Martin Luther to distant generations. 



Mosheim, 
Reformation 



REFERENCES. 

'Ecclesiastical History"; D'Aubigne, 
; Bunseu, "Martin Luther." 



History of the 











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1547-1603.] ELIZABETH. 183 



ELIZABETH. [isss-ieos 

Henry VIII. the father of Elizabeth, had six wives. Cath- 
arine of Arragon, the mother of Maiy, he divorced ; Anne 
Boleyn, the mother of Elizabeth, he had beheaded ; Jane Sey- 
mour, the mother of Edward, died in her bed ; Anne of Cleves, 
his fourth wife, he divorced ; Catharine Howard, his fifth wife, 
shared the fate of Anne Boleyn ; and Catharine Parr, his sixth 
wife, survived him. 

Henry VIII. was succeeded by Edward VL, r 
1- -"^ J • .1. Tk/r -. 1 .1 [1547-1553 

who reigned six years ; then Mary ascended the 

throne, reigned about five years and a half ; and [^ 553-1 558 

was succeeded by Elizabeth, who was 25 years old at the time 

of her accession. 

Her j^outh was not happy, and during the reign of her 
half-sister Mary her lot far from enviable ; when she heard a 
milkmaid sing under the trees of Woodstock Park, she would 
fain have changed places with her. But she employed her time 
well, and became very accomplished in Letters. She knew 
Greek and Latin, and spoke French, Italian, and German ; she 
was well read and fond of music, a daring rider, a good shot, 
and a fine dancer. 

The 3^outhful queen was tall, but not handsome, her bearing 
was full of dignit}' and strength, and her manners pleasing and 
popular. Her sagacity and judgment became known on the 
first day of her reign by her choice of sir William Cecil, after- 
wards lord Burleigh, as her chief adviser. 

The announcement in Parliament of the death of queen Mary, 
was answered by the unanimous proclamation, "God save 
queen Elizabeth, and long and happy ma}^ she reign !" When 



MODERN HISTORY. 



the news became known in London, the bells of the churches 
were set ringing, tables were placed in the streets, " where was 
plentiful eating, drinking, and making merry," for the new 
queen ; and at night bonfires were lit, and the sk}^ was reddened 
by flames, which had not been fed by human beings in Smith- 
field. 

Elizabeth, who was at Hatfield at the time, received the 
news of her accession with an outburst of grateful devotion. 
She fell upon her knees, and exclaimed in Latin, "It is the 
Lord's doing, and it is marvellous in our eyes." 

On the day before her coronation she made a grand progress 
through the city of London, and was greeted everywhere " by 
the prayers, the shouts, the tender words, and uplifted hands of 
the people." 

Soon after her accession, king Philip 11. of Spain made her 
an offer of his hand, but she refused the honor, and told Parlia- 
ment, at the close of a long speech on the subject of her mar- 
riage, " And for me it shall be sufficient that a marble stone 
declare that a queen, having reigned such a time, lived and 
died a virgin." This declaration she often repeated, and kept, 
for she never married. 

Her earliest measures were '^ directed to the regulation of 
church affairs. England became a Protestant country, in which 
the authority of the pope was renounced, and the queen was the 
supreme governor in Church and State. The Mass was abol- 
ished, the Book of Common Prayer restored, and, after 
a few years, the Thirty-nine Articles became the stan- 
dard of belief in the Church of England. 

The execution of Mary, queen of Scots, has left an indelible 
stain on the character of Elizabeth, for it is impossible to ab- 
solve her from the jealousy and fear, which actuated her from 
the moment that the fugitive queen set her foot on English soil 
Feb. 8, Until, after the mockery of a trial, she had laid her 
1587 head on the block at Fotheringay. Although after 
the death of Mary she tried to make the world believe that the 



1563] 



1563-1580.] ELIZABETH. 185 

tragedy was enacted without her knowledge and against her will, 
the verdict of history makes her the prime mover in the transac- 
tion, and convicts her, moreover, of almost unparalleled duplicity. 

There is no doubt whatever, that even after the death-war- 
rant had been signed, she sought means to have her assassinated 
in private, and when these failed, said that the sentence should 
be carried into effect. 

But in spite of many and serious blemishes, she was a popu- 
lar and excellent ruler. In her reign, the material, and espe- 
cialh^ the commercial, interests of the nation were singularly 
prosperous. 

The troubles in France and the discovery of America had 
given rise to a spirit of bold adventure. English privateers, or, 
as they were called, " sea dogs," pursued a dangerous but 
lucrative trade. Chief among them stands the name of Francis 
Drake, who conceived and executed the daring design of carry- 
ing the English flag into the Pacific. AYith a small dec. is, 
vessel and 80 men he passed the Straits of Magellan, 1577 
spread terror along the coasts of Chili and Peru, loaded his bark 
with the gold-dust and silver ingots of Potosi, and with the 
pearls and precious stones which formed the cargo of a Spanish 
vessel ; then, sailing across the Pacific, he doubled the Cape of 
Good Hope, and completed the circumnavigation of sept. 26, 
the globe. 1580 

His return was hailed with unbounded enthusiasm in Eng- 
land ; Elizabeth herself was present at a banquet on board his 
ship and conferred upon him the honor of knighthood. 

Philip of Spain, who felt incensed against Elizabeth not onl}' 
because of the depredations on the commerce and possessions 
of Spain, made by Drake, Cavendish, and others, but because 
of the sympathy and aid accorded b}' the queen and her sub- 
jects to William of Orange, and last, not least, because of the 
execution of Mary Stuart, intended to strike a decisive blow, 
and annihilate the growing and hateful power of England. 

Elizabeth was well informed of his immense preparations, and 



186 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

resolved, while diplomatic negotiations were still going on, to 
-, avert the impending storm, by striking the first blow ; 
she dispatched Drake with a fleet of 30 sail, and or- 
dered him to destroy all Spanish ships he could find in the 
harbors of Spain. He dashed into Cadiz roads, burnt, sunk, 
or took 30 Spanish vessels, some of the largest size. Then, 
between Cadiz and Cape St. Vincent, he burnt, sunk, or took 
100 vessels, and demolished four castles on the coast, and thus, 
as he humorously expressed it, completed his " singeing of the 
Spanish king's beard." 

The preparations, though checked, continued with increasing 
-| vigor. Early in the following year they were com- 
pleted. The armament, which from the vain pre- 
sumption that it could not be resisted, had received the name 
of the Invincible Armada, consisted of 130 vessels of war, 
carrying 2,431 pieces of artillery, and 4,575 quintals of powder ; 
there were on board 30,000 men, while an army of 34,000, under 
the prince of Parma, stood ready at Dunkirk, awaiting the 
arrival of the Armada to protect its passage to England. 

To meet this formidable expedition, Elizabeth had collected 
a fleet of 191 vessels, manned with 17,400 sailors. The vessels 
were of smaller size than those ol Philip, but under more skilful 
nautical direction. Lord Howard of Effingham commanded the 
fleet, and among his subordinates were Drake, Hawkins, and 
Frobisher. A military force of upwards of 63,000 men, with 
36 pieces of ordnance, had been placed at Tilbury Fort, and 
around London. 

The Armada had been ordered to sail earl}' in May, but was 
delayed by the death of two admirals. Philip then put in com- 
mand the duke of Medina Sidonia, a man of bigh rank, but 
utterly deficient in seamanship, and appointed Martinez de 
Recaldo, an expert seaman, vice-admiral. 

The armament set sail from the Tagus on its way 

Mat 29. * -^ 

to Coruna, where more troops were to be taken on 
board, and was overtaken by a severe storm off Cape Finisterre, 



1587-1588.] ELIZABETH. 187. 

ill which four large ships foundered, and much damage was 
done to the rest. After some necessary delay the fleet resumed 
its course, and at last was descried, sailins: slowly 

"- '^ July 20. 

down the Channel, in the form of a half-moon, for the 
coast of Flanders. 

Howard let them pass, and followed them ; in a first brush 
with the enemy's rear, one of the largest Spanish men-of-war 
was crippled, and a treasure ship was taken by Drake. On its 
slow prooress to Calais, where it came to anchor, the 

'. . ' JUI.Y27. 

armament suffered considerable loss. Medina Sido- 
nia opened communication by land with the duke of Parma, 
but Dunkirk being closely blockaded by the English and the 
Dutch, the latter was unable to move his army. Howard threw 
the Armada into confusion and dismay by sending eight small 
fire-ships among them in the middle of the night. They had 
been gutted, covered with pitch, rosin, and wild-fire, and 
filled with combustibles, and quietl}' taken close to the Spanish 
line ; then the men in charge of them took to their boats, fired 
the trains, and escaped. The explosion did not sink any ships, 
but scattered the armament. In the morning a general engage- 
ment was brought on, and the battle raged throughout the day. 
The English were entirely victorious, and so crippled the Span- 
ish that Medina Sidouia abandoned the whole enterprise ; 
and, in order to save the remainder of his fleet from destruc- 
tion, ordered the armament to sail round Scotland. The Eng- 
lish, from want of ammunition, could not follow them, but the 
fierce storms which broke on them in the northern seas, accom- 
plished their overthrow. Onlj' 50 sail, and 10,000 men, stricken 
with pestilence and death, reached Corufia : of the rest, 

^ September. 

some foundered at sea, others dashed to pieces against 
the cliffs of Scotland and Ireland, and others were driven as far 
as the rocks of Norwa3^ The voice of joy and thanksgiving 
rang throughout England, but that of universal lamentation was 
heard in Spain. Philip alone remained calm, and said, "I 
have seat my fleet against men, not against storms and cHfl's." 



188 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Several years after the destruction of the Armada, the Eng- 
lish inflicted another hard blow on Spain in the expedition com- 
manded by the earl of Essex, sir Walter Raleigh, and others. 
-| The fleet sailed into the port of Cadiz, destroyed or 
captured the shipping, and on the next day Essex 
forced the cit}' to capitulate. The lives of the inhabitants, under 
express orders of the queen, were spared on payment of a heav}' 
ransom ; but the}' lost everything they had, the city was plundered, 
set on fire, and the fortifications were razed to the ground. 

This was one of many daring exploits achieved in the reign 

of Elizabeth on the sea, not only with hostile intent, but 

in the more beneficent service of discovery and commerce. 

Martin Frobisher explored the northern seas, and entered the 

strait which leads into Hudson's Bay, and still bears his name. 

-I He landed on some of the adiacent coasts, and 

took them in possession for England. The first 

circumnavigation of the globe, made by an Englishman, was 

accomplished, as told in a former paragraph, by Francis Drake. 

The search of the northwest passage, after Frobisher had led 

_ -. the waj^ was made in three voyages of discovery 

by John Davis, on the first of which he found the 

strait to which he left his name. 

Thomas Cavendish also circumnavigated the globe, and on a 
-| second voyage, shared by John Davis, discovered the 
Falkland Islands in the South Sea. 
•Sir Walter Raleigh and his step-brother. Sir Humphrey Gil- 
_ -| bert, made two unsuccessful attempts to reach, 

with a view to colonial settlement, the North 
American continent ; the latter, after having reached New- 
foundland, perished with his ship at sea on the return voyage. 
Sir Walter in the next year sent out two ships on a more 
southerly course, and that voyage resulted in the discover}' of 
a section of the coast, which, in honor of the queen, was 
called Virginia, and embraced not only Virginia proper, but 
Carolina. It was, of course, a vague term, for even some 



1567-1600.] ELIZABETH. 189 

time later Virginia was defined as " that country of the earth 
which the ancients called Morosa, between Florida and New 
France." The first colony planted, but unsuccessfully, was 
that on Roanoke Island, by Sir Richard Grenyille. ^ 
Drake, on his way from the Spanish possessions, dis- 
covered the settlement, and took the colonists back to England. 
Soon after they had left, Grenville arrived, and left p 
fifteen men in the place, with provisions for two years. 
Raleigh in the next year sent out three, more vessels, but the 
fifteen men had been killed by the Indians. John White, the 
governor sent out by Raleigh, attempted to lay out the city of 
Raleigh, and returned to England. The fate of these colonists 
is unknown. 

It is said that the men from Raleigh's colony, whom Drake 
took back, were the first who introduced tobacco into England. 
Sir Walter liked to smoke, and the story runs that some one 
who saw him smoking fancied he was on fire, and threw a 
tankard of ale over him to put it out. He is also credited with 
having introduced the potato into England. 

Commercial intercourse with India was opened in the reign 
of Elizabeth, and led to the formation of the famous r- 
East India Company. The detestable African slave 
trade, also, is believed to have begun in that reign by John 
Hawkins, who, in commemoration of his priority in |- 
that infamous business, was allowed to add to his 
coat-of-arms " a demi-moor proper, bound with a cord." 

The sudden death of the earl of Leicester, so long the 
favorite of Elizabeth, does not seem to have caused her much 
sorrow. His place was filled by his step-son, the carl of 
Essex. He was a man of fine presence, and many good quali- 
ties, popular, as well as the queen's favorite. He was apt to 
be haughty, and on one occasion forgot himself, and hurt 
the queen's vanity to the quick by his rude conduct. The min- 
isters were discussing the appointment of a new lord-deputy 
for Ireland. The Cecils proposed one officer, and Essex an- 



190 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

other ; Elizabeth siding with the former, and, as was her wont, 
giving Essex a piece of her mind, he rose in anger and turned 
his back upon her. The queen then did a very unqueenly and 
unladylike thing. She boxed his ear, and swore at him. 

Essex laid his hand on his sword, and swore that, as he 
would not have taken such an affront from Henry VIII., so he 
would not take it from a king in petticoats. He then rushed 
out of the room, and stayed away from court for several 
months. But a reconciliation took place, and Essex was sent 
-, as lord-lieutenant to Ireland. His mission proved a 
failure, and he returned, against the wishes of Eliza- 
beth, to London, forced his way to her room, and apparently 
secured her favor, for in token thereof she gave him her hand 
to kiss ; but in the course of the same day she ordered him to 
consider himself a prisoner in his own room, and three days 
later had him arrested. His restraint lasted nearly a year, and 
Aug. 26, npon his release from custody he was forbidden 

1600 the court. Deprived of his honors and offices, 
and reduced in his affairs, he applied to Elizabeth for the 
renewal of his monopolj^ in sweet wines, but she refused, on 
the oftensive ground that, " in order to manage an unruly 
beast, he must be stinted in his food." 

This exasperated Essex, who now passed from one indiscre- 
tion to another, called the queen a vain old woman, who had grown 
as crooked in her mind as she had in her figure, and finally 
Feb. 25, tried to excite an insurrection in London. He was 

1601 arrested, tried, found guilt}^, and beheaded. 

After the death of Essex the queen became gloom}^, and her 
powers began to fail ; towards the last she fell into a stupor 
and refused to take medicine and go to bed. For ten days she 
lay on cushions on the floor, and it was necessary to use force 
to get her to bed. In answer to the question of her ministers 
as to her successor, she said that she would have no rascal to 
succeed her. Cecil asked her what she meant by "no rascal," 
and she said, that a king should succeed her, and whom should 



1599-1603.] ELIZABETH. 191 

she mean but her cousin of Scotland. The next morn- march 24, 
ing she died. Seven hours afterwards James VI. of 1603 
Scotland was proclaimed in London as James I., king of 
England. 

Elizabeth died at Richmond in the 70th year of her age, and 
the 45th of her reign, and her remains were interred in West- 
minster Abbey. A noble monument erected hy James I. marks 
the spot. 

Perhaps the most lasting lustre shed on her reign is that 
derived from the names of Spenser, Shakespeare, and Bacon. 

Elizabeth was \Qvy popular, but both her virtues and her 
faults have been exaggerated. Had she been a man, she might 
in man}' things have been a second Henry VIII., but as a 
woman she was altogether too masculine. Her appearance, as 
noticed by one who saw her four years before her death on a 
state occasion at Greenwich, was " majestic: her face- oblong, 
fair but wrinkled ; her eyes small, yet black and pleasant ; her 
nose a little hooked, her lips narrow, and her teeth black [a 
defect the English seem subject to, from their too great use of 
sugar] ; she had in her ears two very rich pearls, wath drops ; 
she wore false hair, and that red ; upon her head she had a 
small crown . . . her hands were small, her fingers long, and 
her stature neither tall nor low ; lier air was stately, and her 
manner of speaking mild and obliging." 

Elizabeth wrote, and doubtless pronounced, deserve, desarve, 
swerve, sicarve^ keep, kipe, and it hit. 

The ladies of her court imitated her in most things, and either 
dyed their own hair red, or wore red wigs. 

REFERENCES. 

The several Histories of England, especially Knight, " Pictorial 
History of England " ; Green, " Short History of the English People," 
and Robertson, "History of Scotland." Also Mihier, "History of 
England." 



192 MODERN HISTORY. [A.r>. 



1682-1725] PETER THE GREAT. 

Towards the close of the 17th century the vast Russian 
Empire in the estimate of civilized Europe was thought to be 
a gigantic wilderness of impassable mountains and morasses, 
one-half of which was clouded in perpetual darkness or frozen 
up, and the other covered with impenetrable forests. Rough 
as its climate, and uncultivated as its soil, were the character 
and habits of the ferocious tribes of Slavonic or Scandinavian 
origin which constituted its population. That estimate, though 
exaggerated b}^ ignorance or terror, did not fall short of truth 
with regard to the people, who for the most part were in a state 
of abject and savage ignorance, held in base and impotent 
vassalage or slavery by the barbarian despots, or autocrats, 
whom they called czars. 

Russia, at the time of Peter's accession, was practically an 
uncivilized countr}^, and that monarch may justly be called the 
father of Russian civilization. 

Peter was the son of the czar Alexis Mikailovitch by his 

-| second wife Natalia Naryskine, and born at Moscow, 

June 9, 1672, His father died when he was only four 

years old, and was succeeded by Feodor, his half-brother, who 

-| died without issue, and appointed Peter bis successor, 

instead of Tvau, his full brother. Peter, at the time, 

was ten years old, and his mother was to rule during the period 

of his minority. This arrangement was unsatisfactory to the 

children of Alexis by his first wife, among whom the grand 

duchess Sophia, an able, domineering, and ambitious woman, 

was most disaffected. She instigated an insurrection of the 

Strelitz, the petted and formidable body-guard of the Russian 



EUROPE 

under 
LEWIS THE FOURTEENTH 




German Boundary 



I j Brandenburg Poss 

I I Spanish " 

I I Venetian u 

I i Austrian <« 



Longitude 



40 50 GO 




from Greenwlcb 30 



FiikiBfc, N. Y. 



1672-1689.] PETER- THE GREAT. 193 

czars, and succeeded in obtaining the coronation of Ivan and 

Peter as joint rulers, and her own appointment as p 

I 1682 
regent. 

Sophia continued at the head of the government five j^ears 
longer, and became reconciled to the existing state of things 
from her belief that Peter, who lived in the retirement of 
Preobrashenskoe, was not an object of fear. 

But in that she was much mistaken, for the young czar cher- 
ished great projects and was ambitious of making his mark. 
She thought he was playing at soldier}^, and absorbed in study 
and pastime, while he was quietly preparing for action. It 
was his good fortune to make the acquaintance and secure 
the friendship of Lefort, an accomplished Genevese, of much 
culture and refinement, who constantly discoursed to him of 
the vast superiority of other countries to Russia in the sciences 
and arts of civilization, and filled his pupil with the enthusiastic 
desire of securing them to his own country. Lefort undertook 
the formation of a small militar}' company, composed of the 
youthful companions of Peter, in which Peter passed, by strict 
discipline and merit, from the lowest grade to the highest. 
Peter called the company his poteshni, that is, his comrades. 
Their numbers soon increased, and their military training was 
so excellent, that Peter felt assured of their efficient service in 
the prosecution of his plans. He was resolved to oppose the 
usurpation of Sophia, and asked her to resign, forbade her 
appearance on a public occasion in the capacity of regent, and 
upon her refusal, left the church. Sophia, thoroughly roused, 
and daring the worst, as was her wont, fell to intriguing. The 
conspiracy was discovered, and in the revulsion caused by its 
announcement, most of the military, including the Strelitz, 
and many nobles, flocked around Peter, who compelled the impe- 
rious and plotting Sophia to spend the remainder of her life in 
a convent. 

Peter made his solemn entry into Moscow, when he was met 
by Ivan, whom he gratified by the nominal possession of imperial 



194 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Oct. 11, power, and became on that day sole czar of Russia. 
1689 Ivaii died six years later. 

The first care of Peter was directed to the formation of an 
army, in which the military experience of the veteran general, 
Patrick Gordon, and of Lefort, afforded him invaluable aid. 
With i\iQ poteslini as a nucleus, he soon had an effective force 
of 20,000 men, disciplined according to European tactics, which 
was constantly growing in numbers and efficiency. The crea- 
tion of a naval force, both armed and mercantile, also seemed 
to him indispensable to the development of the country, and to 
the conquest he was planning. 

It is said that soon after his accession he noticed in an old 

storehouse near Moscow a boat of a construction different from 

Russian boats. Extremely observant and curious, he learned 

that it was an English boat, and found a Dutch carpenter, who 

put it in thorough repair. Then he tried it himself, and its 

excellence gave him so much pleasure that he forthwith ordered 

the building of a number of boats after that model, both of the 

T same and a lars^er size. He also visited Archan£!:el, on 
1693] 

the White Sea, and encouraged the building of ships 

there so successfully that on his next visit he had the satisfac- 
tion of making a maritime excursion with several Russian built 
vessels. Shut out from the sea, except in high latitudes, by 
Sweden and Poland at one extremity of his vast empire, and by 
Turkey on the other, Peter felt the imperative want of an avail- 
able sea-board and ports, and cast his eyes on the provinces of 
his more favored neighbors. 

When a conqueror sees something he likes and thinks he can 
get, he soon finds a pretext for securing it. Thus Peter 
coveted Azof, at the mouth of the Don on the Black Sea, de- 
clared war against Turke}^, assailed Azof by land and water, and 
-| after a long siege or blockade, took it. Flushed with 
the success of his enterprise, he returned to Moscow, 
and took measures for the preservation of his new conquest by 
ordering the building of more ships of war, and the construction 



1689-1697.] PETER THE GREAT. 195 

of a canal connecting the waters of the Don with those of the 
Volga. He invited skilled engineers, architects, and military 
men from abroad, and sent main^ young Russians to foreign 
countries for study and observation, especiall}' in matters con- 
nected with ship-building, naval equipment, and militar}^ art. 

The numerous reforms introduced b}^ the restless energy of 
the young czar were not relished by the Strelitz, who formed a 
new conspirac}^, which was betra3-ed to Peter b}^ two of their 
number, who came to tell him, a few hours before the feb. 

time fixed upon for the outbreal^:, that the Strelitz, who 1697 
were even then assembled at the house of a prominent noble, 
intended to set the city on fire that very night, and assassinate 
him in the throng and confusion of the scene, which they felt 
sure he would visit. This alarming intelligence was brought to 
Peter at the house of Lefort, with whom he was dining. He had 
the informers arrested, and sent a written order to an officer to 
proceed at eleven o'clock to the designated house, to surround 
it, and take all persons found in it prisoners. Then he returned 
to the company, left about ten, and drove, accompanied by only 
one oflScer, to the house where the conspirators were in session. 
Arriving about half an hour later, he noticed with surprise the 
absence of his soldiers, but fearlessly stepped in among the 
Strelitz, and lulled their guilty fears by exclaiming he had come to 
share their carousal. They drank his health, and about cloven 
he overheard one of the company whisper to his neighbor, "Now 
is the time," and the other reply in as low a voice, " Not 3'et." 
Then Peter thundered out, "But it is time for me, villain!" 
and struck him in the face. At that instant the officer and his 
men entered the room: "Bind the dogs!" shouted the czar; 
the conspirators fell upon their knees, and implored his mere}'. 
They were fettered, and the czar then struck the officer for 
having come too late. He produced the written order in proof 
of his strict obedience, and Peter, perceiving that he had made 
a mistake, kissed him on the forehead, and declared him a good 
officer. 



196 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Then Peter returned to the house of Lefort, and reported 
what he had done. The leaders in the consph'acy lost then- 
lives, the others were pardoned. 

Not content with the observation of others, Peter now carried 
out his cherished plan of seeing with his own eyes what was to 
be seen in foreign lands. He set out in the train of a large em- 
bassy, ostensibly headed by Lefort, and visited the Baltic prov- 
inces, Germany, and Holland. In the guise of an obscure 
traveller, he mingled freely with the people, and made himself 
acquainted with everything that came in his way. He visited 
every place of interest, — not only museums, collections, galleries, 
and the like, but factories, workshops, arsenals, and ship-yards. 

He took lessons in etching, and even in dentistry and shoe- 
making. As a dentist he experimented on the jaws of his suite 
and servants ; he mended his own clothes, and made himself a 
pair of slippers. At Saardam, a village opposite to Amster- 
dam, the}' still show the house in which he lived as a ship-car- 
penter, but that is not the real place where he worked more 
than four months at ship-building. That was the wharf of the 
East India Company at Oostenburg, where he had himself 
registered among the common laborers as Carpenter Peter of 
Saardam, and shared their work. He carried logs, trimmed 
planks, and dressed masts. During the day he was in the 3'ard, 
and at night he conducted his correspondence, or studied geom- 
etry and navigation. 

-| In the following year he visited England, whose 

king had sent him, as a present, a superb yacht, 
the Transport Moyal, armed with 20 brass cannon, whose 
model he greatly preferred to that of the Dutch ships. The 
greater part of his stay in London, which lasted about three 
months, was occupied chiefly in matters relating to naviga- 
tion, ship-building, and the mechanical arts. He took up his 
abode in the house of John Evel^m, at Deptford, near the 
ship-yards, and not far from the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich. 
King William II. arranged in his honor a review of the Eng- 



1698.] PETER THE GREAT. I97 

lish fleet off Spithead, and a sham-fight, which drew forth from 
him the delighted expression, " If I were not the czar of Rus- 
sia, I should like to be an English admiral." 

From England he sailed in the Trans^iort Royal to Amster- 
dam, and proceeded, by way of Germany, to Vienna, intending 
to visit Venice in order to augment his knowledge in ship- 
building, especially in the construction of vessels suited to 
service in the Black Sea. 

On the eve of his intended departure for Italy, Peter received 

the news of the revolt of the Strelitz, and returned to r- 

1 698 
Russia, resolved to punish the offenders. 

He had visited the most civilized lands, and learned much 
of the arts of civilization, but returned as uncivilized in heart 
and soul as he went. Suspecting his sister Sophia to be im- 
plicated in the revolt, the numerous prisoners were put to the 
torture, or, as it used to be called, subjected to criminal investi- 
gation, in order to draw forth from them confessions. The 
means employed were the batogs, the knout, and the fire. The 
prisoner was held down by two men, one at his head and 
another at his feet, armed with thin, short rods, with which the}' 
struck him on his back until the batogs broke. Another prisoner 
was either hoisted upon the back of another man or drawn up 
with his hands tied behind, and his feet loaded with a heavy 
weight, received with a thong of hard leather ending in a loop 
or ring as many cruel strokes as the judge had appointed ; that 
was the knout. A third prisoner had his hands and feet tied 
and was laid on a pole, which being raised by four men, two at 
each end, was held with his back over a slow fire. The confes- 
sions obtained by these examinations, at which Peter himself was 
present not only as spectator, but as examiner, resulted in the 
conviction and capital punishment of more than 2,000 Strelitz. 

They were either beheaded, or hanged, or broken on the 
wheel, and those under 20 years of age were branded in the 
right cheek and sent into exile. 

Although nothing was proved against Sophia, Peter believed 



198 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

her guilty, and forced her to become a nun in the convent of 
Novodevitchy, and the unfortunate princess was compelled to 
witness the hanging of 195 culprits in front of her cell, three of 
whom, convicted of having petitioned her to ascend the throne, 
were hung up under her windows, one of them with the petition 
in his hand, and kept there all the winter. It is asserted that 
not only Menchikof and many nobles, but Peter himself, with 
their own hands, acted as headsmen.^ 

His cruel and brutal conduct is historically established. His 
first wife Eudoxia, whom some writers accuse of sympathy with 
the revolutionists, he compelled to give up her son, the czare- 
vitch Alexis, and to take the veil. That son, when he had 
attained man's estate, dared to oppose his reforms, and suffered 
for his temerity not only exclusion from the line of succession, 
-| but imprisonment and death. It was reported that he 
died from the terror and agitation caused by his trial, 
but general opinion said that he was beheaded in prison. 

Prince Czerbatof, one of the friends of the unfortunate Alexis, 
was punished with the knout, and deprived of his nose and 
tongue ; Sopuchin, the brother of Eudoxia, and the archbishop 
of Resan lost their heads. 

Lefort, who died in 1699, was succeeded by Menchikof in the 
intimate friendship of Peter. The story of his early life is ob- 
scure ; he is said to have sold pies in the streets of Moscow, 
but it is known that he was one of the play soldiers in the early 
days at Preobrashenskoe. He was handsome, witty, lively, very 
intelligent, and fond of the same pursuits as Peter. The com- 
panion of his journey, and in the ship-yards, he rapidly rose in 
the favor of the czar, and became his chief adviser. He ex- 

1 "John George Korb, the Austrian agent, who as an eye-witness has 
left us an authentic account of the executions, heard that five rebel heads 
had been sent into the dust by blows from an axe wielded by the noblest 
hand in Russia. The terrible carpenter of Saardam worked and obliged 
his boyards to work at this horrible employment. Seven other days were 
employed in this way." — Rambaud, " History of Russia," vol. I. p. 305. 



1700-1718.] PETER THE GREAT. 199 

celled both iu the field and iu politics, aud was the chief pro- 
moter of the mau}' reforms iutroduced into the domestic affairs 
of the country. 

Some of these were very curious. The Russians from time 
immemorial had cherished a fondness for very long beards and 
very loug coats. The czar thought that the clipping of both 
was essential to civilization, and commanded those relics of 
ancient barbarism to be removed. A decree went forth requir- 
ing all men except the clergy to shave, and imposing a yearly 
tax ranging from two cents to $200, on those who preferred to 
wear beards, Peter himself had very little beard, and shaved ; he 
wore a little line of moustache, Avhich became the fashion of his 
court. Bearded men were excluded from his presence. Soon 
aftfiT a decree was published commanding the court and officials 
throughout the empire to discard the old Russian costume, and 
wear the new style according to German and Dutch models 
which were hung up at all the gates. The disobedient had either 
to pay a fine, or were required to kneel at the gate and have 
their coats cut off by so much as they trailed on the ground in 
that attitude. The women also were required to conform to the 
newly favored English fashion. 

About the same time Peter declared himself and his succes- 
sors as head of the National Church, and established schools in 
which education was not only commended but made compulsory 
within certain limits. The parent with an income of $1,000 who 
neglected to give his children a school education, was deprived 
of the right of making them his heirs. He encouraged the 
establishment of printing-presses, the translation of the works 
of famous writers, trade with foreign countries, and urged 3^outh 
to follow his example in visiting them. 

The naval enthusiasm of Peter made him long for convenient 
access to the Baltic, and covet the possession of the Swedish 
provinces, which he pretended belonged of right to Russia. 
He formed an alliance with the kings of Poland and p 
Denmark in a combined attack against Charles XII., the 



200 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

youthful king of Sweden. Against all expectation that dashing 

and daring prince compelled the Danes to conclude the peace of 

-1 Travendahl, and gained the ^eat victory of Narva 

I700l ' & » J 

over the Russians. Peter, not at all disheartened by 
the defeat of his troops, waited until the Swedes were in Poland 
after Augustus the Strong, fell upon and conquered Ingria, 
and laid the foundation of his new capital on an island in the 
Neva, which in honor of the Apostle St. Peter, he called St. 
Petersburg. 

With his usual energy he summoned many thousands of work- 
-| men from the remotest parts of his empire, who were 
at work day and night in struggling with a terrible 
climate and natural difficulties, without adequate tools and appli- 
ances. For want of carts and wheelbarrows the earth was car- 
ried in sacks, and every vehicle was required to bring, at least, 
three stones to give stability to the marshy soil, and raise 
it to the required height. The fortress was completed in four 
months, and the building of the city itself progressed so rapidly 
that in less than ten years it numbered several thousands of 
houses. Great inducements were held out to new settlers, who 
flocked in great numbers to the new capital. Every town and 
village was required to furnishr- a contingent of traders, me- 
chanics, and artisans to settle there with their families. The 
workmen also became permanent residents. Hundreds of the 
nobility at Moscow were obliged to spend the winter there, and 
many foreigners made it their home. Under these conditions it 
speedily rose in importance, and became one of the most popu- 
lous and beautiful cities of the world. 

Peter's contest with Charles XII. was decided in the battle of 
Julys, Pultowa, the capital of the Ukraine, in South Russia, 
1 709 with the result that the Swedes were totally routed, 
their cannon, baggage, and treasure were captured, 4,000 were 
slain in the field, and their king had to accept Turkish hospi- 
tality at Bender. 

At the instigation of Charles XII. Turkey declared war 



1700-1721.] PETER THE GREAT. 201 

agaiDst Peter, who invaded Moldavia with an army of 80,000 
men ; he advanced too far, and found himself in a terrible situa- 
tion on the Fruth ; the river was behind him, and a superior 
Turkish force in the form of a crescent pressed him in front and 
harassed his flanks. He believed himself lost, and in his con- 
sternation could think only of captivitj' or death. From this 
dreadful dilemma he was extricated by the astute Catharine, 
who was with him, and succeeded by briber}^ in obtaining from the 
Turkish vizier a treaty of peace, on extremely easy terms. Peter 
promised to restore to the Turks Azof and the territory july 23, 
belonging to it, to withdraw his troops from Poland, ^711 
and to stop molesting the Cossacks ; the Turks good-naturedly 
and foolishly not only believed him, but actually furnished him 
with provisions, and protected him from the attacks of the 
Tartar irregulars who swarmed around his army. 

Catharine, who had been privately married to Peter in 1707, 
was rewarded for her services on -the Fruth, by her r- 
public elevation to the throne ; the loss of Azof, in the 
Black Sea, was followed by the conquest of Finland and other 
successes against the Swedes, which were finally settled in the 
peace of Nystadt, by which Eussia secured the pos- p 
session of the coveted Baltic provinces, undertook to 
pay to Sweden the sum of $2,000,000, and restore to her the 
greater part of Finland. 

Catharine, who had risen from the obscure position of a 
chambermaid in a clergyman's family to imperial splendor, 
accompanied^ Peter on his second visit to Western Europe, and 

1 Rambaud, " History of Russia," vol. II. p. 50, who is ratlier prejudiced 
against Catharine, says that Peter did not dare to take her with him to 
Paris, 

What ladies thought of her in Germany may be gathered from the 
following passage in a letter written by the margravine of Baireuth : — 

"The Czarina was small and clumsily made, very much tanned, and 
without either grace or an air of distinction. You had only to see her to 
know that she was low-born. From her usual costume you would have 



202 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

shared his throne in the celebration of the peace, in 

Oct 22. 

which he assumed the style and title of " Emperor of 
all the Russias." 

In the following year, the ambitious and enterprising czar 

took advantage of the turbulent condition of Persia, invaded 

that countr}' , made his entry at Derbend, and obtained 

from the feeble shah the three Caspian provinces, as 

well as the cities of Derbend and Baku. These valuable acqui- 

-| sitions, of the utmost importance to Russian commerce, 

were guaranteed to the czar in the treaty of partition 

concluded between him and the sultan. 

Ever vigilant, and bent upon adventure, Peter dispatched 
captain Behring on a voyage of exploration, in order to ascer- 
tain the then unknown limits of Northern Asia, it being tlie gen- 
eral belief at that time that Asia .and America were connected 
by land. The discovery of the strait which bears his name 
belongs to a later date. 

In consequence of a cold contracted by imprudent exposure, 
Jan. 28, Peter died, after a painful illness, and was succeeded 
1 725 by his widow Catharine. 

The Russians gave him the endearing appellation of " Father 
of his Country," to which, however, he is not entitled on the 
same grounds upon which we have accorded it to George Wash- 
ington. 

Doubtless he raised Russia to a position of commanding im- 
portance, b}^ territorial aggrandizement," and vast strides in 
civilization ; but want of proper education and deficiency in 
self-government, as well as the invincible strength of native 
despotism, made him rather an object of terror than of affection. 
That despotism found expression in one of the latest of his 

taken her for a German comedian. Her dress had been bought at a 
second-hand shop; it was very old-fashioned, and covered with silver and 
dirt. She had a dozen orders, and as many portraits of saints or reliqua- 
ries, fastened all down her dress in such a way that when she walked you 
would have thought by the jingling that a mule was passing." 



1722-1725.] PETER THE GREAT. 203 

public measures, the celebrated law of succession, promulgated 
in virtue of which it is the czar's inalienable pre- Feb. ff, 1722 
rogative to name his own successor, and to revoke such nomi- 
nation at his pleasure. 

Petei' himself did not nominate his successor, and Catharine 
became empress by acclamation. 

Judged by the standard of his own countr^^, in his age, he 
deserved to be called great ; but by the loftier standard, which 
refuses that epithet to those who fail to practise the virtues of 
temperance, chastity, and mercy, he is not entitled to it. His 
energ}', perseverance, and liberality, his patronage of art and 
science, the impetus he gave to commerce, and his great execu- 
tive ability in war and in peace, are worthy the applause and 
imitation of mankind ; but his savage cruelty and injustice must 
always expose him to the censure of the good. 

REFERENCES. 

The General Histories, and Eugene Schuyler, "Peter the Great," 
2 vols., N.Y. 1884. Rambaud, "History of Russia," 2 vols., IST.Y. 
1886, which contains a very full list of works on Russia. For the 
Swedish war, Voltaire, " Charles XH," 




204 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 



1740-1786] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 

Frederic William I., king of Prussia, was an unculti- 
vated, despotic man, whose sole end in life was soldiering, and 
who believed that drill was its most important duty. His son 
Born Frederic's military training began with his eighth 

Jan. 24, year ; in his tenth year he was put into a uniform, 
1712 

and required to perform the duties of a private : he 
had to mount guard, and stand sentry in the castle-yard. The 
harsh and rigid treatment to which he was subjected, and his 
natural fondness for study and music, which were hateful to his 
father, made his early life very unhappy. His father said of 
him, "Fritz is a piper and a poet ; he cares nought for soldiery, 
and will spoil all my work." His mother, who sympathized 
with her son and pitied him, did all she could to promote his 
happiness, and enable him to gratify his taste for music. 

But it had to be doncby stealth. One da}^, after drill, 
young Frederic had exchanged his uniform for a dressing- 
gown, had his hair dressed by a barber, and was playing the 
flute with his music-master, when some one entered the room and 
frightened all present with the dread news that the king was com- 
ing. The music-master rushed to hide himself in the fireplace ; 
Frederic covered up his flute and music, hid his dressing-gown, 
and donned his uniform ; the king entered the room and de- 
tected the oif ending articles. He seized the dressing-gown 
and burned it ; the books, and had them returned to the 
bookseller ; he sent for the surgeon barber and told him to 
crop Frederic's hair. Some say that he pulled him by the hair. 

Frederic had also a strong taste for French literature, and 
his thoughtful mind invaded the fields of science and religion, 



J 



1712-1732.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 205 

which were peculiarly obnoxious to his father ; he also loved 
his mother, and that was an offence. The relations between 
the father and the son became exceedingly unpleasant, and the 
latter, recoiling from the idea of being married against his 
inclination, and unwilling to submit any longer to the indig- 
nities of tyrannical caprice, tried to escape to the court r- 
of his uncle, George II. of England. 

The preparations had been made, and two of his friends, 
Katt and Keith, had engaged to assist him. The plan was 
discovered, and the prince arrested on the eve of its execution 
and taken before his father, whose fury rose to madness. He 
drew his sword to thrust him through, but was prevented 
through the generous interposition of General Mosel, who 
sprang between, exclaiming, "Kill me, but save your son!" 
Frederic was sent as a deserter to the fortress of Sept. 1 730- 
Kustrin, and kept many months in close confine- Feb. 1732 
ment. Of his abettors, Keith, having received timel}^ warning 
from the prince, made his escape to England ; but poor Katt 
was, like the prince, taken as a deserter to the same fortress, 
tried by a court-martial, and in spite of the court's recom- 
mendation to mercy, put to death under the verj' window of his 
friend. But for the intercession of the kings of Sweden and 
Poland, and of the emperor, the royal tyrant and martinet 
would have meted out the same fate to his son. 

A pliant court-martial found him guilty, but general Bud- 
deubrock protested, saying, "If yov\Y majesty are athirst for 
blood, shed mine ; his 3'ou shall not have so long as I can 
speak ! " So spoke the prince of Dessau, and the king at last 
abandoned his vile and cruel purpose. 

The severity of his confinement after a while became re- 
laxed, he sued for pardon, promised obedience, accepted a wife 
from his father's hand, and a reconciliation took place. On 
the wedding day of his sister he was bidden to come to Berlin, 
and the king took him to his mother, saying, " Well, Fritz is 
back again." He was restored to his place in the army, and 



206 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

the king, in token of his favor, gave him a private establish- 
-l uient at Rheinsberg, near the frontier of Mecklenburg, 
where he resided until his elevation to the throne. 

In the retirement of that lovely spot he had leisure with 
caution to indulge his own tastes in the cultivation of literature, 
music, and horticulture, and to surround himself with men of 
parts, especially those of French extraction. 

His relations with the king continued on the whole quite 
pleasant ; he kept his regiment in good order, and his father in 
good humor by occasional presents in the shape of a grenadier 
six feet eight or six feet nine inches high, for the sight of tall 
soldiers was the very joy of his heart. That father is actually 
credited with having exclaimed before he closed his eyes, "My 
son, I die contented, seeing that I shall have so worthy a 
successor." 

Little was known of the character of Frederic at the time of 

« 

Mat 31, his accession. The ability and energy with which he 
1740 entered upon the active duties of his reign excited 
surprise and admiration. In a time of dearth, he caused the 
royal stores of breadstuff to be sold at a low price, and he 
cut short the expectations of the Rheinsberg coterie by the 
pithy announcement of his^ftiture policy, "No more of these 
fooleries." 

He abolished torture in criminal investigations, and an- 
nounced his spirit of toleration in matters of religion in the 
noble phrase, "Any man may find salvation, as he pleases, in 
my dominions." The late king had not only bequeathed to 
him a splendid army, but also a large war-fund, and he meant 
to make good use of both. Opportunit}^ soon presented itself, 
when Maria Theresa, under the new law of succession known 
as the "Pragmatic Sanction," upon the death of her father, 
Oct. 20, the emperor Charles VI., ascended the throne of 
1740 Austria. 

Frederic, ostensibly on the plea of antiquated claims on 
Silesia, but really from the lust of power and conquest, re- 



1734-1741.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 207 

solved to possess himself of that province, invaded it on the 
principle that possession is nine points of the law, and his 
troops defeated the Austrians in the battle of Molwitz, april lo, 
with the result that Breslau surrendered and the ^741 
greater part of Silesia was occupied by the Prussians. The 
success of Frederic's robbery startled Europe, and the easy 
conscience of rulers jealous of Austria, and unwilling to let' 
Prussia alone enjoy the plunder, made them break their 
plighted guarantee of the Pragmatic Sanction, and rush to 
take part in the dismemberment of the empire of the young, 
beautiful, interesting, and spirited Maria Theresa. France, 
Spain, and Saxony supported Bavaria in her alleged right to 
Bohemia, and concluded a treaty having for its object the 
partition of Austria. Frederic invaded Moravia ; the French 
and the Bavarians marched into Upper Austria and Bohemia, 
and took Prague. The elector of Bavaria had himself pro- 
claimed archduke of Austria at Linz, and crowned as king of 
Bohemia at Prague. 

The fearless empress, with her infant son, the future emperor 
Joseph II., hastened to Presburg in Hungary, where in the 
sight of a vast multitude she was crowned with the venerable 
crown, and arrayed in the robes of St. Stephen, rode up the 
Mount of Defiance, and according to ancient usage unsheathed 
the sword of state, shook it towards the four cardinal points, 
and challenged the four quarters of the earth to dispute her 
rights and those of her son. This happened in June at the 
first sitting of the Diet ; in September, she appeared in deep 
mourning before them, saying, "Deserted by all, I come witli 
my son, noble Hungarians, to seek your protection, committing 
to your fidelity my crowns, my honor, and my liberty." The 
pathetic appeal, and the confidence of the beautiful woman, 
roused the enthusiasm of the chivalrous assembly, who drew 
their swords, shoutiiig : "Let us die for our king Maria 
Theresa ! Our blood and our life are thine ! " They rushed 
to arms, invaded and subdued Bavaria, while the elector was 



208 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

-| chosen and raised to the imperial throne at Frankfort 
on the Main. 
Frederic, meanwhile, changed his tactics ; for, nnwilling to let 
others rob Maria Theresa, after another victory over 

May 17. '^ 

her army in the battles of Chotusitz and Czaslau, a 
June 28. *^ 

peace was concluded, in virtue of which he obtained 

Silesia, abandoned his allies, and withdrew his troops from 

Austria. Maria Theresa was now able to turn her whole force 

against France and Bavaria. The French were driven out of 

Bohemia, and the Hungarians chased the new emperor, to whom 

the imperial crown had become a crown of thorns, out of his 

dominions. The Austrians took Prague, where Maria Theresa 

Mat 13, was crowned queen of Bohemia, and in the flush of 

1 743 triumph thought of recovering Silesia, and her generals 

spoke of punishing France in the re-conquest of Alsace. 

The vain and ambitious emperor Charles YII., who had fool- 

jan. 20, ishly marched into Bohemia, was vanquished by the 

1745 Austrians, and died suddenly. His son, the elector 

Maximilian Joseph, renounced all claims to Bohemia, in the 

peace concluded with Austria, and cast his vote in 

ApRTti 22 

favor of Francis, the consort of Maria Theresa, who 
was elected emperor of Germany, and crowned as 

Sept. 13. ^ -^ ' 

Francis I., at Frankfort. 
Frederic discerned in the peace between Austria and Bavaria 
an element of danger, and without any other pretext recom- 
menced hostilities, defeated the Austrians at Holien- 
friedberg and Striegau, while general Dessau gained a 
victory over the Saxons at Kesselsdorf , followed by still another 
at Sorr. Then followed the Peace of Dresden, in which Frederic 
was guaranteed the possession of Silesia, and Saxony 
mulcted in an indemnity of a million of German thalers. 
Prussia was now at peace, but the war between Austria and 
France continued in the Netherlands and Italy until the conclu- 
OcT. 7, sion of a general peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, in which 
1748 Frederic alone was the gainer. He had Silesia, and 



1742-1759.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 209 

the reputation of being a master in the art of war, an astute 
diplomat, and an able administrator. 

Then followed eleven years of peace, which Frederic devoted 
to the organization of his army, to civil reforms, to the devel- 
opment of the finances, and to literary pursuits, conducted, how- 
ever, in French, not in German. French was his favorite 
language ; he read French books, French was spoken at his 
table, and in French he wrote. Frenchmen were his favorite 
associates, notably Voltaire, who spent some time at his court, 
but left it in disgrace and in diso-ust. 

As a ruler Frederic was all in all. The whole government 
centred in his person ; he directed everj^thing down to the 
minutest detail, and his ministers were only the executors of his 
will. His industry was wonderful, and his capacity for work 
truh" phenomenal. He rose at three in summer, at four in 
winter ; a few minutes sufficed for his toilet ; he attended forth- 
with to the vast nimaber of letters, reports, proposals, applica- 
tions, petitions, etc., which had arrived during the night; 
distrustfully he looked at their seals before he opened and read 
them ; he sorted them, criticised their contents or their writers, 
and indicated to his secretaries his pleasure. Then came his 
militar}^ aides to present their reports, and receive his com- 
mands. 

A simple repast of coffee and rolls was his breakfast. Two 
hours of recreation he spent in playing the flute, and walking 
up and down, thinking. His secretaries, who in the meantime 
had made abstracts of the official correspondence referred to, 
received oralW, or in writing on the margin, his final instructions. 
The remainder of the morning was devoted to reading, writing, 
the review of the guards and parades. The soldier who had an}' 
part of his arms, or his uniform, out of order, was sure to be 
detected, reproved, or punished. Nothing escaped his eagle 
glance. 

Dinner, prepared according to the bill of fare furnished by him- 
self every morning, was served at noon, and enlivened by the 



210 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

conversation of the wittiest and keenest intellects he could find, 
and his own epigrammatic, satirical, or sarcastic sallies. The 
indefatigable secretaries then brought the letters they had 
written, for his signature. After that he took a short constitu- 
tional walk, followed by literary work from four to six, and a 
concert from six to seven, in which he often appeared among 
the performers. The supper, which concluded the day, was an 
animated and entertaining meal, and often protracted to mid- 
night. Although he loved good eating and drinking, and enter- 
tained on a large scale, the strict economy he practised, and 
which might be called parsimonious, kept the whole charge of 
his kitchen within an annual expenditure of $10,000. 

Such was the daily life of Frederic the Great at home, which 
he never varied except in his campaigns and journeys. When he 
was travelling, he inspected everything with his own eyes, and 
the provincial and district officials were required to accompany 
him on horseback, take turns at his carriage window, and 
present their oral reports. 

In those years of peace the injured Maria Theresa was bend- 
ing all the energies of her intense character to the accomplish- 
ment of the dominant purpose of her life, of humbling to the 
dust the upstart king, whom she hated as a robber, a perjurer, 
and an infidel. She was the soul of the formidable, though as 
yet secret, understanding between Russia, France, Saxony, the 
Germanic Body, Sweden, and Austria, which contemplated the 
dismemberment of Prussia. Frederic had his spies and tools 
in every court, who kept him advised of everything ; and he 
received so man}^ consistent reports from all directions that 
he could not doubt the reality of the project, which, if he 
allowed it to be carried into effect, would certainly annihilate 
him ; so he boldly and wisely determined, Ijn^ striking the first 
blow, to terrif}^ his adversaries, and better his desperate con- 
dition. 

Prompt to act, he asked Maria Theresa to explain her inten- 
tions, saying, "I want no answer in the style of an oracle." 



1756-1757.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 211 

Her reply was evasive and haughty, but his acknowledgment 
plain, unmistakable, and emphatic. 

An army of 60,000 Prussians, without a previous declaration 
of war, entered Saxony, and thus began the Seven august, 
Years' War. The elector Augustus held a strong posi- 1756 
tion with an army of 17,000 opposite to the lofty and impregna- 
ble fortress of Konigstein, and expected succor from the 
Austrian general Browne, who was approaching at the head of 
an army of 60,000 to his relief. 

Frederic invested the Saxon camp, and took Dresden, where 
his soldiers possessed themselves in the very bed-chamber of 
the queen of Poland of a trunk containing the Saxon State 
Papers of a recent date, which furnished abundant evidence of 
the designs of the coalition. Frederic caused the most damag- 
ing documents to be published at once, as the best and most 
convincing explanation of his course. 

Leaving a portion of his army to look after the Saxon camp, 
he advanced aoainst Browne, and in the battle of 

=* ' Oct. 1. 

Lowositz not only defeated him, but decided the fate 
of Saxony, for Augustus having fled to his kingdom of Poland, 
the famished and frost-bitten Saxons capitulated eii masse. The 
officers were dismissed on their word of honor, but the rank and 
file converted into Prussian soldiers. Frederic went hito 
winter-quarters in Saxony, and exacted from the conquered 
province all the supplies necessary for his troops. 

The real tug of war, however, did not come until the follow- 
ing year, when Frederic, who could not muster more than 
200,000 men, saw arrayed against him half a million of Aus- 
trians, German Imperials, French, Russians, and Swedes. Early 
in the year Frederic poured his troops into Bohemia, p 
and encountered under the walls of Prague the Aus- 
trian army, commanded by Charles, duke of Lorraine, and 
marshal Browne. A murderous battle was fought, in which 
Frederic gained the victory ; but it was dear bought, for 18,000 
of his men lay on the field, among them the heroic and aged 



212 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Schwerin, who, when the Prussian infantry wavered, snatched 

the colors from a fugitive ensign, waved them on high, shouting, 

"Come, boys !" led them forward, till, pierced by four balls, he 

died a soldier's death. 

The duke of Lorraine was shut up in Prague ; but Frederic 

had to withdraw a body of 30,000 men from the besieging army, 

to oppose the cool and cautious marshal Daun, who, at the head 

of 60,000 men, held an almost impregnable position at Kollin. 

He attacked him, and after a frightful carnasre, 

June 18. ' ^ ^ ' 

met with a crushing defeat, entailing the loss of 13,000 

men, two colors, and 43 cannon. Brooding on the inconstancy 

of fortune, he sat that night, and said, with tearful eyes, " This 

has been a bad day, boys ; but have patience, I shall soon make 

things all right again." There was nothing to be done but to 

retreat in good order, raise the siege of Prague, and leave 

Bohemia. 

The disastrous day of Kollin was speedily followed by other 

calamities ; the duke of Cumberland, his ally, had been beaten 

by the French at Hastenbeek, in Hanover, and made 

Sept. 7. "^ ' 

a convention with the enemy at Kloster Seven, by 
which his own electorate was saved from subjugation, and the 
French were at liberty to assail Frederic. Another army, com- 
posed of the French and the German Imperials, were in Thu- 

rinffia, a body of Russians had defeated the Prussians 
Aug. 30. =" ' -^ 

at Grossjagerndorf, the Swedes had invaded Pomer- 

ania, and even Berlin had tasted the bitterness of war, in the 

capture and plunder of the Croatians. 

All the greatness and strength of Frederic's character shone 
in his conduct under that cloud of calamities. It is said that, 
he was always prepared for the worst, and that it was his in- 
flexible purpose neither to surrender the contest, nor to allow 
himself to be taken alive. He always carried about his person 
a sure and deadly poison, which in the last extremity he in- 
tended to take. But that extremity never came. 

On his return from Bohemia, he quickh' collected a new army, 



1757.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 213 

and took the field against the allied arm}^ of the French and the 
German Imperials, who, under the command of the prince of 
Sonbise, were pushing their way through Thuriugia. The armies 
met at Rossbach, where the French, at least twice as strong as 
Frederic, felt secure in their intrenched camp. He attacked 
them, and, in an eno-ao-ement which lasted hardlv two 

' ' ^ *= ^ Nov. 5. 

hours, defeated them so signally that those who escaped 

the swords and bullets of the Prussians never rested until the 

green waters of the Rhine gurgled behind them. Frederic 

took 7,000 prisoners, and captured their cannon, colors, and 

baggage. 

Then he turned round, and led his troops into Silesia, where 
matters seemed hopeless, for Breslau had fallen, and Charles of 
Lorraine and Daun held the province with a superior force, not 
less than 60,000, and perhaps 90,000, strong. Exactly one 
month after the battle of Rossbach the armies met at 

Dec. 5. 

Leuthen, a few miles west of Breslau. The line of the 
Austrians extended some eight miles, and Frederic, to prevent 
being outflanked, set up his 33,000 men in a diagonal line. A 
feigned assault, directed against the Austrian right, masked the 
true attack, which burst with irresistible strength on their left, 
threw the whole line into confusion, and accomplished their 
overwhelming defeat, with a loss of 27,000, in killed, wounded, 
and prisoners, 59 stand of colors, more than 100 cannon, and 
thousands of wagons. Breslau opened its gates, Silesia was re- 
conquered, and the fame of Frederic published throughout the 
world. Napoleon called the battle of Leuthen a masterpiece, 
sufficient to entitle Frederic to a place in the first rank among 
generals. 

The story runs that Frederic, with a very small escort, rode 
to Lyssa, in order to secure the passage of an important sheet 
of water. He reached the castle in advance of the rest, and 
stepped among the Austrian officers, who might easily have 
made him prisoner. " Good evening, gentlemen," lie said. 
" You did not expect me, I presume? May I have a bed?" 



214 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

The Austrian officers let him pass, and on the speedy arrival 
of his generals, surrendered to them. 

The belligerents renewed their preparations for further con- 
test. On the side of Maria Theresa stood Russia and France ; 
on that of Frederic, England, which abrogated the convention 
of Kloster Seven, and sent him an auxiliary force, designed to 
drive back the French, and placed under the command of i^rince 
June 23, Ferdinand of Brunswick, who not only drove them 
1758 over the Rhine, but defeated them at Crefeld. 

Frederic passed the winter at Breslau, took Schweidnitz, and 
invaded Moravia ; bat was compelled to make a masterly retreat 
before the superior numbers of the enemy, who threatened his 
line, and was manoeuvring to isolate him. He left Keith in 
Silesia, and marched against the Russians, who were wasting 
the north-eastern provinces of his dominions. The stories of 
their savage brutality were on every lip, and deepened the in- 
nate aversion with which the warriors of Frederic loathed their 
presence on German soil. A sanguinary battle was fought at 
Zorndorf , and rao-ed throuohout the lonoj August day, 

Aug. 25. ' o o & & J ' 

until the combatants were utterly exhausted. Thirty 
thousand victims lay on the field, dead or wounded ; the wounded 
were still fighting ; and it rs horrible to read of a wounded 
Russian who lay on a wounded Prussian, tearing him to pieces 
with his teeth. The victor}^ was Frederic's, who had thus, 
within the space of nine months, defeated in three memorable 
battles the armies of France, Austria, and Russia. 

These splendid triumphs, however, were followed by reverses. 
Frederic, who after the defeat of the Russians had hastened to 
the relief of his brother, met the Austrians under Daun, the 
most cautious, and Laudon, the most dashing and ingenious, of 
the generals of Maria Theresa. It was their plan to cut off 
Frederic from Silesia ; and they surprised him, at dead of 
night, in an insecure position, which the king audaciousl}'" but 
unwisely had chosen right before the enemy. " If the Aus- 
trians allow us to remain here, they deserve to be hanged," said 



n, fiud 

Oct. 14. 



1758-1759.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 215 

Keith. "They dread us more than the gallows," replied Fred- 
eric ; but he was mistaken. During the night the Austrians 
stealthily circumvented the Prussian position, and 
drew their lines around it. At five in the morning the 
roar of their own artillery awakened the Prussians ; half clad 
they rushed from their tents to resist the advance of Daun's 
foot, when the cavalry of Laudon burst upon their rear and 
flanks, and mowed them down by rows. The carnage was 
dreadful ; two balls killed Keith, a cannon-ball carried off the 
head of prince Francis of Brunswick, Dessau fell mortally 
wounded. In the darkness, illumined only b}^ the burning houses 
of Hochkirch, and the dense fog which covered the field at day- 
break, a regular defence was impossible ; but after sunrise the 
Prussians formed in line, and fighting, accomplished their retreat 
in good order. Frederic lost 9,000 in killed and wounded, his 
cannon and baggage ; but the defeat only quickened his energy. 
As the artillerists filed past him without their pieces, he asked 
jestingly, " AYell, what has become of your cannon?" "The 

took them during the night ! " shouted the men. "Then we 

must take them from him by day !" rejoined the king. "Aye, 
aye," answered the men, " and he shall pay us the interest, too." 

The disaster of Hochkirch was quickly repaired, and Frederic 
had recovered Silesia and Saxony before the year closed. 

In the following year troubles thickened ; the allies renewed 
and increased their efforts for the overthrow of Prussia. Two 
French armies marched against Ferdinand of Bruns- 



AUG. 1, 



wick and were defeated at Minden. The Kussians, 1759 
after defeating Wedel at Kay, effected a junction with the 
Austrians, and Frederic attacked them at Kunncrsdorf. Earl}' 
in the dav the fortune of war favored the Prussians, 

Aug. 12. 

who scaled with great gallantry the heights on which 
the enemy was posted, forced the left wing of the Russians, 
and captured half the cannon ; elated with his success, the king 
renewed the conflict, and led his men, exhausted by six hours' 
hard fighting in the burning heat of an August sun. nprainst the 



216 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

enemy, who brought fresh troops into the field, and turned the 
victory of the Prussians into a perfect rout. Frederic himself 
had a narrow escape from capture, and at night he wrote in 
blank despair: "All is lost; save the royal family." A few 
hours later: "I shall not survive the ruin of the fatherland. 
Good-bye forever." 

With his handful of troops he would have been lost but for 
the jealousies of his victors ; he gained time, and had soon col- 
lected an army of 30,000 for the defence of Berlin ; but the 
chain of his misfortunes was not 3^et broken, for he received 
the evil tidings that Daun, after the capture of Dresden, had 
taken 11,000 Prussians prisoners at Maxen. Thus closed the 
fourth year of the war. 

The first six months of the next year were just as unfortunate, 
-| but the tide turned at last in his favor in two brilliant 
victories, the one over Laudon at Liegnitz, the other 
over Daun at Torgau, by which he recovered Silesia and Sax- 
ony, but not Dresden. 

The situation of Frederic seemed desperate at the commence- 
-, ment of the sixth vear of the war. His resources were 

1761 

exhausted, the subsidy from England had ceased to 
flow ; he could not take the off&ilsive, nor prevent the junction of 
Laudon and the Kussians. Nothing but the jealousies of the 
hostile commanders saved him from ruin. He was not a relig- 
ious man, but the veteran general Ziethen was. In his en- 
trenched camp at Buuzelwitz, Frederic looked with gloomy 
apprehension to the near future, and spoke in that strain to 
Ziethen, who bade him put his trust in God, and hope for the 
best. The king asked in the bitterness of his heart, if he had 
found a new ally because he was aiwa3's speaking so hopefully 
of a happy future. " Why," said the old blade, " I have not 
found a new all}^, but m}^ old ally above will not leave us ! " 
" Pshaw," rejoined Frederic, " but he does not work any more 
miracles." " They are unnecessary," quoth Ziethen, "for he 
will fight for us, and save us." 



1760-1762.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 217 

His faith was rewarded, for the allies did not attack Fred- 
eric, and the Russians, for want of provisions, retreated across 
the Oder. The king was free, and said to Ziethen, not with- 
out emotion at this almost miraculous deliverance, " Your ally 
has kept his word." 

The events of the 3'ear, upon the whole, were disheartening, 
for though Henry, the king's brother, had held his own in Sax- 
ony, and Ferdinand kept off the French, Laudon had captured 
the fortress of Schweidnitz, and the Russians Colberg. Silesia 
and Pomerania seemed lost to him. 

The death of Elizabeth and the elevation of her nephew Peter 
in. to the throne, was an unforeseen event of vast r- 
moment to Frederic. The new czar was an enthusias- 
tic adnMrer of Frederic, and inaugurated his brief and unfortu- 
nate reign by a series of measures of incalculable benefit to 
Prussia, and of still greater benefit to Europe, in hastening the 
last acts of the terrible war. He liberated all the Prussian 
prisoners of war without ransom, and in the treaty- of peace 
concluded at St. Petersburo- restored to Prussia the 

^' Mayo. 

provinces which Elizabeth had conquered, and ordered 

the Russian commander Czeruitchef to join his army of 20,000 

men to that of Frederic. Sweden followed the exam- 

May 22. 

pie of Russia and made peace with Prussia. 

Frederic lost no time in repairing his fortunes. He marched 
with the Russian auxiliaries into Silesia, and encountered the 
Austrians, under Daun, at Burkersdorf. On the eve 

' July 19. 

of an intended assault, Czernitchef received orders to 
separate his army from that of Frederic, in consequence of the 
deposition and murder of Peter III. and the accession of his wife, 
who under the title of Catherine II. had ascended the throne. 
The Russian commander yielded to the urgent representations 
of Frederic in suppressing his recall for the space of three 
days, and giving him the moral support of his presence, as his 
orders forbade his participation, in the impending 

u xMjY 21* 

engagement. A battle ensued at Burkersdorf, in 



218 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

which Daim was defeated. Then the Russians withdrew, and 
Frederic invested and took the fortress of Schweid- 

OcT. 9. 

nitz. 

Prince Henry defeated the Austrians and German Imperials 
Qp^ 29 i^ the battle of Freiberg in Saxon}', and Ferdinand of 
Brunswick, who had successfully resisted the French, 
^^^•^' took Cassel. A Prussian raid against the German 
Imperials scattered the contingents to their several principali- 
ties, and Frederic at the close of this eventful year, though 
crippled in his resources, felt strong enough to renew the 
struggle with Austria single-handed. 

But Austria was also crippled, and unable to accomplish 
alone the overthrow of an enemy whom she had tried in vain 
to crush with the powerful aid of France and Russia. 

England and France, by mutual agreement, withdrew from the 
conflict and in the Peace of Paris bound themselves to neutral- 
it}'. Catherine II. pursued a similar policy, and under the 
influence of these and other political factors, an armistice be- 
Feb. 15, tween Austria and Prussia was followed by negotia- 
1 763 tions for peace, which was concluded at Hubertusburg 
in the beginning of the ensuing ^ear, on the basis of a restora- 
tion of things to what they were before the war. Frederic lost 
nothing ; he retained Silesia and Glatz. Augustus recovered 
Saxony, and Maria Theresa received the promise of Frederic's 
vote in favor of the archduke Joseph, her son, at the impending 
election of a German emperor. 

Crowned with victory and the applause of mankind, not for 
the greatness of his conquests, but for his greatness in adver- 
sity, and for his indomitable strength of i^urpose, he entered 
Berlin in triumph late on the eveninp;' of a raw March 

Makch 30. ... 

day. The city was illuminated, and as he rode in an 
open carriage with Ferdinand of Brunswick at his side, he was 
moved to tears, by the enthusiastic and loving reception, which 
the people accorded to him after an absence of more than six 
years of terrible sufl^ering. In the castle church at Charlotten- 



1762-1763.] FREDERIC THE GREAT. 219 

burg he ordered a solemn Te Deum. It was expected that 
Frederic and the whole court would be present. But he came 
alone ; and when the strains of the anthem fell upon his ears, 
the tears rolled down his cheeks, and he fell upon his knees, 
to express thus publicly his gratitude to God, who, true to old 
Ziethen's prediction, had fought for him and brought him safe 
out of all his troubles. 

The destruction in life and property which the war had 
wrought was stupendous. It had entailed the loss of not less 
than 800,000 men ; Prussia had expended $100,000,000, 
Saxony estimated her pecuniary loss at $60,000,000, and 
Austria had increased her indebtedness alone by nearly 
$100,000,000. In Hessia and Hanover the villages were 
deserted and reduced to heaps of ashes. The French had 
wasted the western provinces, the Russians those in the East. 
Blooming districts had become howling deserts ; in many parts 
the fields lay untilled, for the seed-corn had been consumed, 
the cattle slaughtered, and the owners had perished either 
in battle or by the famine. In some places only women 
were left to attend to agricultural pursuits. Fifteen thousand 
houses had been destroyed by fire. The only comfort to the 
stricken people was the almost incredible fact that Frederic at 
the close of the war could cheer them with the assurance that 
he had incurred no debt. 

To repair these ravages and heal these wounds Frederic now 
strained all the energies of his nature. He opened his store- 
houses, filled with corn against another campaign, which, for- 
tunately', did not take place, distributed it among the poor 
villagers, and gave them the horses which had been bought for 
military use. He remitted the taxes in those districts which 
had suffered most in the war, and encouraged by liberal dona- 
tions, drawn from his private purse, the building of houses and 
villages ; settlers received aid to bring waste places under the 
plough. New roads and canals were constructed, industry was 
promoted, and education raised not only to a higher plane, but 



220 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

made compulsory. His hobby was the army, which was, and 
still is, the most important factor of the Prussian monarchy. 

The enlightened liberality of Frederic, already adverted to, 
was remarkable, and decidedly in advance of his age. Liberty 
of conscience and liberty of religious belief, or if any man 
chose, liberty of disbelief, was one of the distinctive features 
of his reign, and prompted, among other things, the vast intel- 
lectual life which has raised German literature to the command- 
ing position it occupies. Frederic freely accorded to his people 
the fullest freedom in the use of the press. A man might 
write or print what he pleased, and even offensive lampoons 
directed against his person might be published with impunity. 
One day he saw a crowd straining their eyes to read a placard, 
and rode up to know what it was ; perceiving that it was a 
satire upon himself, he ordered it to be placed lower, that the 
people might read it without difficulty, observing : " My people 
and I have come to an agreement which satisfies us both. They 
are to say what the}^ please, and I am to do what I please." 

Frederic's reign after the close of the Seven Years' War con- 
tinued almost undisturbed for twenty -three years. Restlessly 
Aug. 17, activc to the last, he died at Sanssouci, in the 75th 
1786 year of his life, generalh' admired and honored 
b^^ his peers, loved by his people, and almost idolized by his 
army. The memory of his singularities and exploits, of his 
wit and popularity, continues to this day, and the Prussians 
still speak fondly of "the old Fritz," or "the great Fritz," 
whom the world in more stately phrase describes as ' ' Frederic 
the Great." 

His quaint, square face, with its peering eyes, his cocked hat 
and long pig-tail, his blue coat and long vest, his leaning pos- 
ture and his crutch-cane, may still be seen on many a sign- 
board of the numerous hotels in the fatherland, called "The 
King of Prussia" ; and Macaulay says that in his day, portraits 
of him were so numerous in England that one would find twenty 
portraits of Frederic for one of George II. 



1786] 



FREDERIC THE GREAT. 



221 



Though not great in all respects, certahily not in the highest, 
he was unquestionably a great general, a great ruler, and a great 
man in many things. 



REFERENCES. 



The Histories of Germany; for young students acquainted with 
German, Duller, " History of the German People," vol. II. Carlyle, 
'' The Life of Frederic the Great " ; Macaulay, " Frederic the Great." 







222 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 



1732-1799] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 

On the high ground near Bridges Creek, not far from its con- 
fluence with the Potomac, on the Virginia side, a simple stone 
Feb. 22, records the fact that the homestead which formerly 
1732 stood there was the birthplace of George Washington. 

His father, Augustine Washington, was married twice. By 
his first wife he had four children, of whom only two, Law- 
rence and Augustine, survived childhood. His second wife 
was Mary, the daughter of colonel Ball ; four sons and two 
daughters blessed that union. The eldest was George. Soon 
after his birth the family moved to an estate in Stratford 
County, opposite Fredericksburg, and the old homestead there, 
now vanished, was the scene of his childhood. 

Lawrence, the eldest half-brother of George, had been edu- 
cated in England, and spent two years as captain in the joint 
expeditions of admiral Vernon and general Wentworth. The 
April 12, suddcu death of his^ father, and his marriage to Miss 
1743 Fairfax, checked his militar}^ career, and he settled 
on the Potomac in a house which, in honor of the admiral, 
he called " Mount Vernon." The education of George in the 
local schools did not extend beyond reading, writing, arithmetic, 
book-keeping, and surveying, but it was supplemented by men- 
tal and moral culture at home. His devout mother helped to 
shape his character hy. daily readings from standard works, 
especially from Sir Matthew Hale's " Contemplations," a book 
replete with admirable maxims for outward conduct and self- 
government. Eobust of frame, and fond of athletic exercise, 
he excelled most of his playmates in contests of agility and 
strength, and was imbued with a martial spirit by the letters 
and the military exi)erience of his brother, through whose 



1732-1799.] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 223 

instrumentality he obtained a commission of midshipman. But 
for the strong opposition of his widowed mother, George would 
have gone to sea. 

At the house of the Fairfaxes he became acquainted with 
lord Fairfax, who, in consequence of a romantic love affair in 
which he was the sufferer, had come to looli: after his immense 
landed interest, and engaged 3'ouug AVashington to examine, 
surve}', and map out his vast estate in the valley of the Shenan- 
doah, the beautiful river whose name, in the Indian dialect, is 
said to import "the daughter of the stars." Though onlj' in 

his 17th year, he did the work so well that, on his r 

•^ [l748 

return, he was made a public surveyor, an office 

which he held for three 3'ears with great credit. 

It was an unfortunate oversight in the treat}' of peace con- 
cluded at Aix-la-Chapelle that the boundaries between the 
British and French possessions in North America had not been 
defined, the effect of which was seen in the race for the posses- 
sion of the disputed territory, and the subsequent outbreak of 
hostilities between the two nations, in which the doomed red 
man played an important part. 

Washington, then only 19 ^^ears old, was appointed to a mili- 
tar}' position for the purpose of organizing and equipping the 
militia of his district. In order to qualify himself for his new 
duties, captain Muse taught him the art of war in theory, and 
manual exercise, while Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of 
fortune, instructed him in fencing. 

He was called to suspend these martial pursuits in order to 
join his brother Lawrence on a trip to the West Indies, for the 
benefit of his health, and spent seven weeks at Barbadoes, 
three of them confined in bed with small-pox, slight p 
marks of which remained in his face through life. 
The case of Lawrence was beyond cure, and he just returned 
to die under his own roof, after having appointed r- 
George one of his executors, and, upon certain con- 
tingencies, heir to the estate of Mount Vernon. 



224 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Governor Dinwiddle soon after sent Washington on a diplo- 
matic mission of remonstrance to the French, for their en- 
croachments on British territory, and to the Indians, to secure 
their good-will and friendship. It was a very difficult and 
arduous undertaking, full of hardships and perils, but the 
young military diplomat overcame tliem all, and though he 
could not stop the evil, acquired so much valuable knowledge 
of the country, the Indians, and the numbers and purpose of 
the French, that upon his return tlie governor at once took 
measures for armed resistance, and made him second in com- 
mand of the troops, raised in Virginia, for operations against 
the French. 

On his first expedition Washington had indicated the spot 
at the confluence of the Monongahela and Alleghany, often 
called the fork of the Ohio, as peculiarly adapted to the 
erection of a fort, and captain Trent had been despatched 
to that point to complete it. The French heard of it, surprised 
his workmen, drove them away, and finished the fort, which 
they called Fort Du Quesne. Intelligence of this overt act 
of war reached Washington when at the head of 150 men he 
emerged from the mountains ; but he took reprisals in the cap- 
ture of a detachment of French, whom he sent as prisoners to 
governor Dinwiddle. Unable to take the offensive, he built 
a fort, which, from the pinching want of provisions, he named 
Fort Necessity. While there he decorated the Indian chiefs 
and warriors with medals, named two of their number Fairfax 
and Dinwiddle, and received in turn the grand but unexplained 
Indian name of Connotaucarius. The French unfortunately 
heard of his straits, and compelled him at last to capitulate 
on honorable terms. On his return he received the thanks of 
the Virginia Assembly. 

Washington accompanied Braddock on the disastrous expedi- 
tion against Fort Duquesne as aide-de-camp, and had that brave 
but infatuated officer listened to the judicious advice of the youth- 
ful American, his life and the lives of his command might have 



1755-1775.] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 225 

been saved, and the defeat itself averted. The courage julyq, 
and ability of Washington were universally praised; 1755 
he had four bullets through his coat, and two horses were shot 
under him. An old Indian chief told Washington many years 
afterwards, that he and his braves had repeatedly fired at him 
during the engagement, but fired in vain, which convinced them 
that he bore a charmed life. 

Three years later he had the satisfaction of entering with the 
advanced guard Fort Duquesne, which on the approach Nov. 25, 
of the English army, the French deserted and set on fire. 1 758 

The reduction of that post marks the close of the early 
military career of Washington, who soon after married jan. 6, 
Mrs. Martha Custis, and settled on his estate at 1759 
Mount Yernon. He was a judge of the county court, and a 
member of the House of Burgesses, and took a prominent part 
in the debates which ultimately resulted in the independence of 
the Colonies. In the Convention at Williamsbursj r 

|l774 

Washington was chosen among the delegates to the 
First General Congress, and in the Second General Con- 
gress, by the unanimous vote of that body, comman- p 
der-in-chief. He rose in his place, and after thanking 
Congress for the high honor, added: "But lest some unlucky 
event should happen unfavorable to my reputation, I beg it 
ma}^ be remembered by every gentleman in the room, that I 
this day declare with the utmost sincerity, I do not think 
myself equal to the command I am honored with. As to pa}-, 
I beg leave to assure the Congress that, as no pecuniary con- 
sideration could have tempted me to accept this arduous em- 
ployment, at the expense of my domestic ease and happiness, 
I do not wish to make an}'' profit of it. I will keep an exact 
account of my expenses. Those, I doubt not, they will dis- 
charge, and that is all I desire." 

The condition of affairs at Boston required his immediate 
presence. Hardly 20 miles from Philadelphia he met a courier 
hastening to carry to Congress the tidings of the battle 



226 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

of Bunker's Hill. "Did the militia stand fire?" was 
June 17. 

his anxious inquiry, and when told how splendidly they 

had behaved, exclaimed, "The liberties of the countr}^ are safe." 
When he entered the camp at Cambridge, the shouts 
of the people, and the salvos of cannon, announced to the 
enemy the news of his arrival. As he looked upon his army, 
"a mixed multitude of people under very little discipline, 
order, or government," widely scattered, beleaguering a cit}^ 
garrisoned by veteran troops, with ships of war in the harbor, 
he felt the magnitude of the work before him, and braced him- 
self to its execution in the spirit of a Christian warrior, re- 
marking, " that the cause of his country had called him to 
an active and dangerous duty, but he trusted that Divine 
Providence, which wisely orders the affairs of men, would 
enable him to discharge it with fidelity and success." 

It was a poor army, indeed, without uniforms, a militar}' 
chest, proper arras, adequate shelter, and especially without 
powder. The whole amount of powder would not amount to 
nine cartridges to a man. 

The organization of the raw and undisciplined troops, their 
military training, and their term of service, as well as the 
construction and provisioning-6f forts, in case Congress should 
direct the bombardment of the city, and for the defence of the 
American lines, engaged the attention of Washington and 
consumed many weary and trying months. The erection of a 
battery on Dorchester Heights, commanding the town and the 
March 18, harbor, compelled lord Howe to evacuate the city, 
1776 and hastily embark his troops with some 1,200 Amer- 
ican loyalists. They sailed to Halifax, and Boston saw them 
no more. Washington entered the next day, and was received 
with great cordiality. After certain sanitary precautions, the 
American army marched into the town, while Congress awarded 
to Washington a unanimous vote of thanks, and ordered a 
gold medal to be struck in commemoration of the event, bear- 
ing his effigy, as the Deliverer of Boston. 



1775-1776.] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 227 

After the surprise of Ticouderoga and Crown Point, and 
both in view of expected hostilities from the direction of 
Canada, as well as from the desire of securing the sj'mpathy 
and support of the Canadians, an expedition to that province 
became a military necessity. Montgomery-, under orders from 
Schuj'ler, attacked and obtained the surrender of St. John's, 
captured Montreal, and sought to effect a junction n^ov. ic, 
with Arnold, who had accomplished the daring feat 1775 
of striking from Augusta, on the Kennebec, through the 
wilderness into Canada, and making his way to Point Le^'i. 
He reconnoitred Quebec, and when on Dec. 1 the detachment 
under Montgomery came up, the two commanders planned and 
partly executed an assault upon that stronghold. dec. 3i, 
Montgomer}- fell dead on the spot; Arnold was 1775 
wounded, but made his escape. The expedition ended in fail- 
ure, and the British general Burgoyne not only drove the 
Americans out of Canada, but recovered Montreal and St. 
John's. 

The arrival of a powerful British armament in the Bay of 
New York, numbering 130 men-of-war and transports, spread 
consternation throughout the city and along the rivers, and 
indicated the coming storm, which Washington, with his inade- 
quate arm}^ sought to avert. The most important news which 
the British learnt was the announcement that the General 
Congress at Philadelphia had unanimously passed tlie "Declara- 
tion of Independence," which Washington had caused july4, 
to be read a few daj^s later at the head of each brigade 1776 
of the army. The joyous excitement in New York was un- 
bounded, and among other tokens thereof the populace pulled 
down the leaden statue of George III. in the Bowling Green, 
and broke it up for conversion into bullets " to be used in the 
cause of independence." 

The intentions of the enemy, who had disembarked on Staten 
Island, and sent two ships up the Hudson, soon bc- 

^ ^ July 12. 

came manifest. Lord Howe, the admiral of the fleet. 



228 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

arrived, and after several weeks of preparations, the 

August 27. i x ■■ 

' British effected a lauding on Long Island, encountered 

and defeated the Americans. They would have been lost had 

the enemy followed up his advantage ; as it was, the sagacit}^ of 

Washington accomplished their deliverance, in the masterly 

retreat of 9,000 men with all the munitions of war, from the 

presence of a victorious foe, across a strait three-quarters of 

a mile wide, without discovery or loss. 

The retreat from Long Island was the precursor of similar 
movements, indispensable to the preservation of the American 
army, which, from various causes, was kept in a state of de- 
plorable destitution and inefficiency. Yet such was the military 
genius of Washington, that with a mere handful of half-starved 
and ill-clad troops, he defeated the enemy in the brilliant affairs 
at Trenton and Princeton, and placed the Delaware between 
himself and the British. His tactics recalled those of the 
famous Roman general, who watched and lured the great Han- 
nibal, and earned for him the title of the " American Fabius." 

In the ensuing year was fought the battle of the Brandy wine, 
Sept. 11, iu which the British remained masters of the field, and 
1777 secured the possession of Philadelphia. The defeat 
was not very alarming, f of Washington, a few days after, at- 
tacked the enemy at Germantown, and would have been suc- 
cessful but for an unexplained panic. The British, as usual, 
failed to make good their advantage, and Washington went into 
winter-quarters at Valley Forge. The only decisive success 
over the enemy had been achieved in the North by general 
Gates, who defeated Burgoyne at Saratoga, and compelled him 
to surrender ; but it was of no benefit to Washington, for Gates, 
thinking only of his own aggrandizement, failed to strengthen 
his hands by the troops, the bulk of whom he did not need. 

That winter at Valley Forge marks the gloomiest period in 
the history of the war. The sufferings of the men were dread- 
ful ; they suffered from hunger and cold ; their miserable huts 
afforded but poor protection from the inclement weather, while 



1777-1778.] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 229 

their scant clotbiug, want of bread and meat, and sickness, 
aggravated the miser}^ of the men, to which, in the case of Wash- 
ington, must be added the galling anno3-ance of jealous interfer- 
ence on the part of Congress, and of remonstrance on the part 
of the Legislature of Pennsylvania against his going into win- 
ter-quarters ; he had at that time " 2,898 men unfit for dut}^, 
because they are barefoot, and otherwise naked," and his 
entire strength mustered only " 8,200 men fit for duty" ; and 
their numbers were fast decreasing, because from want of blankets 
the men had to sit up all night by fires j instead of sleeping in 
their beds. " I can assure those gentlemen," he writes, " that 
it is a much easier and less distressing thing to draw remon- 
strances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside, than to 
occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow with- 
out clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to have 
little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel abun- 
dantly for them, and, from my soul, I pity those miseries, 
which it is neither in my power to relieve nor prevent." 

Most opportune and valuable was the advent of the baron 
Steuben, an able and experienced soldier, who had served in the 
Seven Years' AYar, been an aide-de-camp to Frederic the Great, 
and was a splendid disciplinarian. Washington appointed him 
inspector-general, and his great efficiency soon told on the army, 
which, under his faithful and vigilant instructions, began speedily 
to operate like a well-regulated body. His English was rather 
poor, but he gave it emphasis by a liberal admixture of \)o\y- 
giot profanity. His stories of the trials of Frederic, of his 
fortitude and perseverance, especially of the gloomy da3^s of 
Bunzelwitz, must have cheered Washington, whose faith was 
as simple and childlike as Ziethen's. 

The horizon cleared somewhat when in Ma}^ came the glad 
tidings that two treaties, one of amity and commerce, may 2, 
another of defensive alliance, had been signed be- 1778 
tween France and the United States. The army at Valley Forge, 
decently uniformed, tolerably well fed, and also well drilled. 



280 MODERN HISTORY, [A.D. 

had a grand holiday on the occasion of the announcement of 

that important news, and joyfully shouted, "Long live the 

king of France ! Long live the friendly European Powers ! 

Huzza for the American States." But they shouted yet more 

lustil}^, " Long live general Washington ! " 

It was good news, for it imported not onl}' that France had 

acknowledged the independence of the United States, but sent 

a fleet to help them in the struggle. The immediate result was 

an order to Clinton, who had succeeded Howe in command at 

Philadelphia, to concentrate his forces at New York. His 

departure from the former city had been accomplished with 

secrecy and despatch, but Washington followed the British 

across New Jersey, and came up with them at Monmouth. Lee, 

who had been ordered to attack the rear of the enemy, disobeyed 

the general, and ordered a retreat, which was fortunately checked 

by Washinsjton. The day was spent in manoeuvrino- 
June 28. J & j i o 

for good positions and desultory fighting, and at its 
close the Americans, who had the best of it, were ordered to lie 
on their arms, ready for action in the morning. At sunrise it 
was found that Clinton and his army had left, and having trav- 
elled all night, had advanced too far to be overtaken in the 
extreme heat by the American^, already worn out with fatigue ; 
so the pursuit was abandoned, and Washington established his 
headquarters at Paramus. 

After the arrival of the French fleet, under count D'Estaiug, 

a plan for a combined attack on Newport was formed, 

July 29. ^ ^ 

attempted, but not executed. Howe came up with the 
English fleet, D'Estaiug went out to meet him ; the hostile fleets 
manoeuvred for the weather-gauge, but were so badly shattered 
in a storm that they did not fight. Howe went back to New 
York, and the count sailed for repairs to Boston. The land force 
under general Sullivan, deprived of the expected co-operation, 
made good its retreat, fortunately in time to escape Clinton, who, 
the very next day arrived in a light squadron with a large rein- 
forcement. The failure of the combined enterprise caused uni- 



1778.] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 231 

versal chagrin, and in the words of Wasliington, " blasted in 
one moment the fairest hopes that ever were conceived." 

The British now transferred the war to the South, captured 
Savannah and Augusta, overran Georgia, marched upon Charles- 
ton, but were compelled by the American general, Lincoln, to 
fall back upon Savannah. They also sent a marauding expe- 
dition into Virginia, took Norfolk and Portsmouth, seized or 
destroyed many vessels, and inflicted by their ravages a loss of 
more than $2,000,000. Another expedition of the same char- 
acter sailed up Long Island Sound, took New Haven, burnt 
Fairfield and Nor walk, destroyed all the public stores and the 
shipping, but was prevented from meting out the same fate to 
New London by the movements of Washington in the High- 
lands. 

Clinton had possessed himself of the forts at Stony Point 
and Verplanck's Point, at the southern extremity of the High- 
lands of the Hudson. The former had been greatly strength- 
ened by the British, and Washington, who had conceived the 
idea of wresting it from them, entrusted the execution of his 
plan to the intrepid Wayne, who, from his daring valor, is 
known as " Mad Anthony." The fort crowned a promontory 
extending far into the river, which washed it on three sides. A 
deep morass, under water at flood-tide, but provided with a 
causeway and bridge, passable at low water, was the only 
approach to it from the land side. The cannon of the fort 
commanded that approach, two rows of abatis interposed be- 
tween the base and the summit, and the vessels in the river 
controlled the shore. The precautions had been well taken, 
even to the silencing of the tell-tale barks of the dogs. A 
negro, who knew the countersign, and had often been in the 
fort, guided the Americans. Two soldiers, disguised as 
farmers, accompanied him, and while he was chatting with the 
first sentinel, the farmers seized and gagged him. The second 
sentinel met the same treatment. The causeway being flooded, 
the detachment could not cross until some time after midnight, 



232 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

while general Muhlenberg, with 300 men, guarded the western 
side of the morass. 

The troops formed in two divisions, preceded by forlorn 
hopes, charged with the perilous duty of removing the abatis, 
and made the ascent on opposite sides. They had nearly 
reached the outworks before the}^ were discovered ; fighting 
ensued ; the Americans, at the point of the bayonet, pushed 
forward, and, heedless of the fire of grape-shot and musketry, 
bounded into the fort from opposite sides, struck the British 
flag, and forced the garrison to surrender at discretion. Wayne 
was wounded, but carried into the fort. The Ameri- 

JULT 15. 

can loss was 15 killed and 83 wounded ; 63 of the 
British garrison were killed; the remainder, 553, were taken 
prisoners. The capture of Stony Point is one of the most 
brilliant exploits of the war, but in nothing more than the 
noble humanitj' of the brave conquerors, " who scorned to take 
the lives of a vanquished foe when calling for mercy." 

A similar exploit was the dashing surprise of the fortified 
point of Paulus Hook by the gallant Harry Lee, and the cap- 
ture of part of its garrison, " within cannon-shot of New 
York." In the autumn of this year the French admiral 
D'Estaing, and general Lincolri made a combined but unsuccess- 
ful attempt to recover Savannah, and the withdrawal of the for- 
mer from the scene of war induced Clinton to embark with an 
army of 7,000 men on an expedition intended for the capture of 
Charleston, and the reduction of South Carolina. 

With means utterly inadequate to the magnitude of his work, 
an army, weak in numbers, and they "almost perishing with 
want," the perplexities of the American commander-in-chief 
were appalling. He held his own in the North, and watched 
with deep solicitude the events in the South to which he had 
despatched De Kalb with all the troops he could spare, his entire 
command being at that time numerically inferior to the British 
garrison in New York. 

Lincoln, after sustaining a siege of forty-two days and a fear- 



1778-1780.] GEORGE WASHINGTON, 233 

fill bombardment, had to surrender Charleston ; Clinton sent 
out three marauding expeditions, one towards Augusta, another 
in the direction of Camden, and a third under Tarleton in pur- 
suit of Buford, who after the fall of Charleston had begun a 
rapid retreat with his Virginians. Tarleton overtook him, and 
by his ruthless massacre of 113 Americans, who had cried for 
mercy, earned unenviable notoriety perpetuated in the phrase of 
" Tarleton's quarter." After thus pacifying South Carolina, 
Clinton left lord Cornwallis with 4,000 men in command, and 
with the remainder of his troops returned to New York. 

The American forces, now placed under the command of 
Gates, met the British under Cornwallis near Camden, aug. 16, 
and were defeated. Poor Gates retreated to Salisbmy 1780 
and Hillsboro', and tried to raise another army, but lost his 
command, musing in his fallen greatness on the fickleness of 
fortune, and doubtless recalling the almost prophetic parting 
words of Lee, " Beware your Northern laurels do not turn to 
Southern willows." 

The progress of the victorious Cornwallis into North Caro- 
lina was checked by the spirited affair of King's Moun- 
tain, in which a large body of republicans from 
Kentucky and Tennessee annihilated the command of major 
Ferguson. 

Early in the same year Lafayette had returned from France 
with the good news of promised succors from that country, and 
though the fleet with troops arrived at Newport, no combined 
action could be concerted. The discovery of Arnold's treacher}- 
to betray West Point into the hands of Clinton was a 

"^ , Oct. 2. 

terrible blow to Washington, but the fate of Andre, 
who stood convicted as a spy, though sad, could not be averted. 
General Greene who succeeded Gates in the command at the 
South, had an army of about 2,000 ill-clad and ill-fed men to 
oppose to at least double that number of well-favored redcoats. 
Part of the troops, the Americans, Continentals, and militia, 
under Morgan, and the British under Tarleton, met at a place 



234 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

called "The Cowpens." Morgan, who was a splendid tactician, 
allowed himself to be attacked, and when the militia gave way, 
ordered a change of front, which Tarleton mistook for a retreat, 
Jan. 17, ^nd daslicd after them in pursuit. The Americans 
1781 coolly faced about, delivered at' close range a murder- 
ous fire into the ranks of the British, and attacked them with 
the bayonet. They fled in wild confusion, and though Tarleton 
tried by turning on colonel Washington's horse, to rally his 
men, he could not stay the rout, was wounded by the colonel, 
and fled to Cornwallis. He lost 800 men in killed and wounded, 
as well as all his cannon and baggage. The story runs that some 
time later Tarleton, conversing with an American lady, referred 
scornfully to the colonel as an illiterate man who could not write 
his name, and drew from his fair companion the sharp reply, 
"Ah, colonel, but you bear evidence that he can make his mark." 

Cornwallis immediately broke up to pursue Morgan, but 
arrived just in time to see him safe across the Catawba ; dark- 
ness stayed his progress, and during the night it rained. Greene 
joined Morgan, conducted the retreat, and passed the Yadkin 
before the English could overtake him ; it rained again, and 
Cornwallis had to pause in the pursuit. The Americans pushed 
forward to Guildford Court House, where they joined the main 
army, which was advancing under Huger. Then the opposing 
armies chased each other in marches and countermarches, the 
Americans to gain time and expected succors, the English to pre- 
vent both. At last they met in battle at Guildford Court House. 
There was much hard fighting, yet though the redcoats won 
the day, they were as much crippled as the Americans. 
Cornwallis, with Greene's men molesting his flanks, re- 
treated to Wilmington, and leaving Greene to pursue his way 
to South Carolina, moved into Virginia, where the traitor 
Arnold was doing much mischief. 

Washington sent Lafayette to co-operate with Steuben, but 
their forces were too weak to catch Arnold (who, fortunately 
for himself, received orders to return to New York) , or to arrest 



1781.] GEORGE WASHINGTON, 235 

the progress of Cornwallis, who had effected a junction with 
Phillips, and reinforced by four regiments, proceeded to York- 
town, where he fortified himself, and awaited the arrival of an 
expected British fleet. 

Washington now, by a feint upon New York, prevented Clin- 
ton from despatching more troops to Virginia, and concerted 
measures with Rochambeau for the capture of Cornwallis. 
Neither Clinton nor Cornwallis had the faintest suspicion of 
the formidable machinery that had been -set in motion, and was 
silently, rapidly, and effectually converging upon its destination. 
The nnited American and French troops were directed to York- 
town ; and when De Grasse, with his powerful fleet, arrived on 
the scene, a plan of operations was agreed upon, in virtue of 
which the armies surrounded Cornwallis hy land, and 24 ships 
of the Hne prevented ingress or egress by sea. 

By this time Clinton, apprized of what was going on, strained 
every nerve to send ships and men to Cornwallis, whose position 
was desperate. He was held in a vise, for Washington and 
Rochambeau assailed him from the north, while the ships com- 
manded the river and the sea on all other points. 

The allied armies threw up their works, and began to bom- 
bard the town : two days later, they opened a second parallel, 
and took two British redoubts ; then Cornwallis made a last 
desperate attempt at escape by crossing to Gloucester, but a 
storm scattered his boats. There was now nothing left to him 
but to surrender. Washington rejected a proposed armistice of 
24 hours, but granted one of two ; the terms of capitulation 
were then arranged, according to which Cornwallis, on the 19th 
of October, suirendered his sword to general Lincoln ; more 
than 7,000 British soldiers laid down their arms, and became 
prisoners of war. The joy in the united camps was unbounded, 
and Washington ordered a divine service, bidding the army 
unite in it " with that seriousness of deportment and gratitude 
of heart, which the recognition of such reiterated and astonish- 
ing interpositions of Providence demand of us." 



236 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

The glad tidings spread with amazing rapidity over the 
country, roused the grateful joy of every patriotic heart, and 
quickened not only the hope, but the resolution to persevere in 
the good cause with increasing courage und earnestness. 

Washington's first measure was to send 2,000 men to Greene, 
his second, to order the army back into winter quarters, his 
third, to fight battles for that army with Congress. 

The success at Yorktown, though the first step in the direction 
of peace, was not peace. The enemy held Charleston and 
Savannah in the South, and New York in the North ; hostilities 
might be resumed at any moment ; British fleets swept the seas, 
American commerce was destroyed, American credit gone, and 
the armj^, unpaid and unprovided for, clamored for a change, 
and wanted to make Washington a king. He spurned the idea, 
and stood at the helm. While the question of war or peace was 
discussed abroad, he did not relax his vigilance on Tarleton, the 
successor of Clinton, at New York, and acted the part of a suc- 
cessful mediator between the army and Congress. 
Sept. 3, The wclcomc news of the treaty of peace concluded 

1783 at Paris, which accorded to "The United States of 
America " an honorable place in the family of nations, prompted 
Washington to apply to Cohgi'ess for instructions as to dis- 
banding the army, and to publish the event in every camp, 
with orders " that the chaplains with the several brigades will 
render thanks to Almighty God for all his mercies." The army 
Nov. 25. ^^^ formally disbanded, and after the evacuation of 
New York, Washington affectionately took leave of his 
Dec. 23. officers, proceeded to Annapolis, resigned his commis- 
sion to Congress, and retired " from the great theatre of public 
action " to the privacy of his own home at Mount Vernon, where 
he rested, in his own words, " under the shadow of his own vine 
and his own fig-tree, free from the bustle of a camp, and the 
busy scenes of public life." In the same letter to Lafayette he 
said: "Envious of none, I am determined to be pleased with 
all ; and this, my dear friend, being the order of my march, I 



1783-1797] GEORGE WASHINGTON. 237 

will move gently down the stream of life until I sleep with my 
fathers." 

From Mount Vernon he visited his lands in Western Virginia 
and planned canals connecting the waters of the Potomac and 
James with those of the Ohio ; he was made president of the 
companies formed for the purpose, but applied the shares which 
were voted to him to the endowment of schools. 

The unsatisfactory working of the old Articles of Confederation 
not only impeded the work of the government, but made it almost 
powerless. Each State claimed absolute power to manage its own 
affairs, and all the States were not only jealous of one another, 
but of a federal government. " We are one nation to-day, and 
thirteen to-morrow," said Washington; " who will treat with us 
on those terms ? " These serious and dangerous inconveniences 
were discussed at great length in a Convention of Delegates at 
Philadelphia, under the presidency of Washington, which framed 
and adopted the Constitution of the United States, sept. 17, 
That instrument (the amendments excepted) is still in 1787 
force, and under it, Washington was unanimously chosen the 
first president of the United States. 

He accepted the trust, and his journey to New York, the 
temporary capital of the United States, was an uninterrupted 
triumphal procession. His formal inauguration took aprilso, 
place in the presence of an immense multitude on the 1 789 
balcony of the Senate Chamber, which occupied the site of the 
present sub-treasmy at the corner of Nassau and Wall Streets. 
Chancellor Livingston administered the oath of office, and 
Washington, profoundly moved, kissed the Bible, and said, " I 
swear, so help me God." The chancellor gave three cheers, 
and loud rang the cr}^ " Long live George Washington, presi- 
dent of the United States." Then the flag went up, cannon 
roared, and all the church bells were set ringing, as so many 
tokens of the universal joy. 

Washington served two terms, only because his r- 

o T J 1789 1797 

high sense of duty prompted him to respect the 



238 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

wish of the people, not because he coveted the office or its 
continuance. " I shall assume the task," he wrote, " with the 
most unfeigned reluctance and real diffidence, for which I shall 
probably receive no credit from the world." 

It was a herculean task, but he performed it better than an}- 
one else could have done at the time. The government had no 
money and no credit, but an enormous debt ; under his admin- 
istration a revenue was provided, the national credit estabhshed, 
and the payment of the debt arranged ; the Whiskej^ Rebellion 
was put down ; the Indian troubles in the Nortli-west were com- 
-, posed by " Mad Anthou}'," who told the Indians that if 
they dared to break the treaty of peace, he would return 
from the grave and fight them. Abroad Washington caused the 
country to be respected ; treaties were concluded with Great 
Britain, Spain, and the Barbary States, of vast benefit to the 
nascent commerce of the countr}-, and the growth and develop- 
ment of her resources. Refusing a third election, he issued 
his Farewell Address and retired to Mount Vernon. 

Once more, upon the occasion of expected hostilities with 
France, Washington reappeared in public life as lieutenant- 
general and commander-in-chief of the American army, and 
soon after, in consequence ofsTsevere cold caught by exposure, 
Dec. 14, died after a brief illness. His last words were, " I die 
1 799 hard, but I am not afraid to go " ; and a little later : 
" I feel myself going. I thank you for your attentions ; but I 
pray you to take no more trouble about me. Let me go 
quietly ; I cannot last long." The loved home of his life on the 
bank of the Potomac is also his last haven of rest ; his body was 
laid in the family tomb at Mount Vernon. 

The purity, the virtue, the unselfishness, and above all 
things, the lofty patriotism of George Washington, who shone in 
every station and relation of life, and though childless, was 
truly the Father of his Country, places him on a higher pedestal 
of glory than that occupied by mighty potentates and conquer- 
ors, to whose names posterity has added the epithet " Great." 



1732-1799.] 



GEORGE WASHINGTON. 



239 



The Deliverer and Founder of this mighty nation, has in that 
nation the proudest monument that ever was erected to the 
memor}^ of a man. A famous writer has said of him, "Until 
time shall be no more, a test of the progress which our race has 
made in wisdom and virtue will be derived from the veneration 
paid to the immortal name of Washington." 

The memory of his life and work cannot be effaced or even 
dimmed, and remote posterity will bless his name as that of one 
who in the opinion of Americans, and in that of all lovers of 
goodness ajid virtue, was "first in peace, first in war, and first 
in the hearts of his country-men." 

REFERENCES. 

The Histories of the United States. Sparks, "Life and Writings 
of Washington"; Marshall, "Life of AVashington " ; Washington 
Irving, "Life of Washington"; Habberton, "George Washington." 




240 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 



1706-1790] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 

A TOMBSTONE ill the Old Granary Burial Ground in Boston 
bears the inscription : — 

JOSIAH FRANKLIN AND ABIAH HIS WIFE 

LIE HERE INTERRED. 

THEY LIVED LOVINGLY TOGETHER IN WEDLOCK FIFTY-FIVE YEARS; 

AND WITHOUT AN ESTATE OR ANY GAINFUL EMPLOYMENT, 

BY CONSTANT LABOR AND HONEST INDUSTRY, 

(WITH GOD'S BLESSING,) 
MAINTAINED A LARGE FAMILY COMFORTABLY; 
AND BROUGHT UP THIRTEEN CHILDREN AND SEVEN GRAND- 
CHILDREN REPUTABLY. 
FROM THIS INSTANCE, READER, 
BE ENCOURAGED TO DILIGENCE IN THY CALLING, 
AND DISTRUST NOT PROVIDENCE. *jf 

HE WAS A PIOUS AND PRUDENT MAN, 
SHE A DISCREET AND VIRTUOUS WOMAN. 
THEIR'YOtJNGEST SON, 
IN FILIAL REGARD TO THEIR MEMORY, 

PLACES THIS STONE. 
J. F. BORN 1655 — DIED 1744,— >E. 89. 
A. F. BORN 1667 — DIED 1752, — /E. 85. 

The ancient worthies commemorated on that stone were the 
parents of the illustrious Benjamin Franklin, who next to and 
jointly with George Washington, ranks in American history as 
one of the principal founders of the Eepublic. 

The fifteenth child of his father, the eighth child by his 
Jan. 17, second wife, Benjamin, who had yet two sisters 
1706 younger than himself, was born in Boston. His 
father was a tallow-chandler, and Benjamin at the tender age 
of ten was taken from school and set to work in p^iitting wicks 



1706-1790.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 241 

for the candles, filling the moulds, attending to the shop, and 
going errands. It was not pleasant work, and he longed to go 
to sea, but as his father did not favor the project, he was 
apprenticed to an older brother, who was a printer. This 
pleased him more, especially as it afforded opportunity to 
gratify his fondness for reading. He learned and became 
soon an expert at his trade ; but as he could not agree with his 
brother, concluded to better his condition by seeking employ- 
ment elsewhere. So he went to New York, and unable to get 
work there, made his way to Philadelphia, where he landed 
with a silver dollar and a shilling in coppers in his pocket. 
Walking up Market Street, he bought three huge rolls, and 
carrying one under each arm while despatching the third, 
passed the house of Mr. Read, whose blooming daughter 
Deborah, destined to be his wife, stood at the door, and 
scanned the comely, hungry, but ungainly youth. Although 
printing was yet in its infancy, by dint of application he found 
employment as a journeyman printer, and lodgings at the house 
of the father of the aforesaid Deborah. 

It so happened that he became acquainted with sir William 
Keith, the governor of Pennsylvania, who took a fancy to him 
and urged him to set up as printer on his own account. Armed 
with a letter from the governor he returned to Boston for his 
father's consent, but as Benjamin was only 18 years old, 
Josiah Franklin advised him to wait until he was 21, promis- 
ing if by that time he had saved mone}^ enough to set himself 
up in business, he would help with the rest. But the governor, 
upon his return to Philadelphia, encouraged his scheme, prom- 
ised to advance him the amount required, and urged him to go 
to London to buy type, where furnished with his letter of 
credit and letters of introduction to his friends, he could not 
fail to make satisfactory arrangements for the future. 

Although the governor's promises were cruel deceptions, 
Benjamin, rich in hopes and the plighted affection of Deborah 
Read, sailed to London and spent there some eighteen months. 



242 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

during which he gathered much vahiable experience in the mj's- 
teries of the printer's craft, and as valuable knowledge of 
books, men, and the world. 

In London he looked into other eyes, and that circumstance, 
as well as the uncertainty of his affairs, induced him to inform 
Miss Read that he might not return for a long while. It so 
fared, however, that Mr. Denham, a fellow-passenger from 
Philadelphia, upon his return to that city, offered Benjamin a 
clerkship in a store he was about to open there, and he, feeling 
that the cords of love drew him away from England, in due 
course landed in the City of Brotherly Love, but found that in 
consequence of his fickleness, the blooming Deborah had mar- 
ried "one Rogers, a potter." That potter was a scamp ; rumor 
said that he had another wife ; a year later he fled from his 
creditors ; and another rumor of his death was followed, four 
Sept. 1, years after Benjamin's return from England, by the 
1730 marriage of Benjamin and Deborah. 

Meanwhile he and Meredith had set up a printing-press and 
begun the publication of the "Pennsylvania Gazette," which 
Franklin edited. His business began to prosper, and its head, 
life, and soul, Franklin, followed it so industriously that 
after twenty years devoted-^t^i^ its growth and development he 
was enabled to retire with a competency. Never before had 
there been such a strange business in the Quaker City as that 
followed by the bright English Yankee from Boston, who com- 
bined the material, the intellectual, the moral, and even the 
spirituous in its several departments. He manufactured lamp- 
black and ink, bought and sold rags, cut type and illustrative 
matter, wrote, edited, printed, and sold his newspaper, im- 
ported, printed, bound, and sold books, edited and published 
the famous serio-comic almanac, " Poor Richard," whose popu- 
larity in the Colonies and in Europe was unexampled. Nor 
was this all : in that newspaper office might be had not only the 
sundries already enumerated, but whatever related to stationery, 
and much that belonged to domestic economy, such as soap and 



1730.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 243 

live-geese feathers, coffee, and even " sack." The pounds in- 
creased and multipHed, and when he retired from business he 
had an income of £700 a year, and sold the good-will to Hall, 
his foreman, for £18,000, payable in eighteen annual instal- 
ments of £1,000. 

These results were the reward of his industry, honesty, and 
strong good sense ; there was in those days in Philadelphia and 
the province of Pennsylvania not a man so deservedly popular 
as the honest, industrious, jovial, generous, public-spirited, 
learned, and wise Benjamin Franklin. • At the age of ten he 
had left school, but his insatiable thirst for knowledge and the 
energy with which he entered upon the pursuit of it, without 
any other guidance than that of his own good sense, made him 
a very learned and accomplished man, who could read French, 
Italian, Spanish, and Latin, was well versed in history, mathe- 
matics, philosophy, political economy, and the sciences ; a de- 
lightful companion to converse with, and who, when conversa- 
tion flagged, could play the harp, the guitar, the violin, the 
violoncello, and the harmonica. He was also a perfect genius 
in mechanical contrivances ; he improved the last-named iustru- 
ment, and invented the " Franldin stove." Nothing escaped 
his attention or observation ; now it was the discover}^ that 
the north-east storms on the Atlantic coast move backward, 
from south-west to north-east, and abate in violence as they 
go ; or that ants have the power to communicate thought ; or 
it was an experiment to revive, by exposure to the sun, flies 
drowned in Madeira wine. But the greatest of all his scientific 
achievements were his discoveries in electricity, by which he 
demonstrated the identity of lightning with the electricity 
excited by artificial means, and became a benefactor of the 
world in giving it the lightning-rod. 

The story of his kite is too familiar to be repeated hci'e, l)ut 
it may not be uninteresting to sa}' that the little boy who 
accompanied him on the memorable excursion had attained the 
mature age of twenty-two. The fame of his discovery spread 



244 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

throughout the world, and made him speedily the most cele- 
brated American in Europe ; the Ro3^al Society of London 
elected him a member, and conferred on him the Copley 
Medal ; the great Kant of Konigsberg called him the modern 
Prometheus who had brought down fire from heaven, etc. 

Meanwhile the modest discoverer continued his experiments, 
many of which were not only ingenious but diverting. He 
would electrify a young lady, and a young gentleman not aware 
of her state, and encouraged to snatch a kiss from her ruby 
lips, would be punished for his temerity by a spark and a shock 
that sent him dancing to another part of the room ; it is also 
said that he electrified the railing in front of his house to keep 
off inquisitive idlers, and the like. But the immediate and 
practical benefit of his discovery he gave to the world in "Poor 
Richard's Almanac " for 1753. 

" How to secure Houses^ etc. , from Lightning. — It has pleased 
God in his Goodness to Mankind, at length to discover to them 
the Means of securing their Habitations and other Buildings 
from Mischief by Thunder and Lightning. The Method is this : 
Provide a small Iron Rod (it may be made of the Rod-iron used 
by Nailers) , but of such length, that one End being three or 
four Feet in the moist Grouird, the other may be six or eight 
Feet above the highest part of the Building. To the upper End 
of the Rod fasten about a foot of Brass Wire, the size of a com- 
mon Knitting-needle, Sharpened to a fine Point : the Rod may 
be secured in the House by a few small Staples. If the House 
or Barn be long, there may be a Rod and Point at each End, 
and a middling Wire along the Ridge from one to the other. 
A House thus furnished will not be damaged by Lightning, it 
being attracted to the Points, and passing through the Metal 
into the Ground without hurting any Thing. Vessels also hav- 
ing a sharp pointed Rod fixed on the top of their Masts, with a 
Wire from the Foot of the Rod reaching down, round one 
of the Shrouds, to the Water, will not be hurt by Lightning." 

The vast and shining merit of Franklin singled him out for 



1730-1753.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 245 

public trusts. His public spirit and philanthropy, demonstrated in 
the establishment of a library, a hospital, and a college, all called 
into being by his energy, gave him great influence, and step by 
step he rose in the public service. He was an alderman, be- 
came clerk to the General Assembly of Pennsylvania, was 
appointed postmaster of Philadelphia, chosen a member of the 
Assembl}', and commissioned postmaster-general for America. 
That office he held for man}" j'ears, and explained this tenacity 
by the pla^^ful remark that he lacked " the Christian virtue of 
resignation," his rule being "never to ask for offices "and 
" never to resign them." In his capacity as postmaster-gen- 
eral he rendered valuable aid to Braddock, and during the panic 
which prevailed after his failure, it was Franklin's influence 
which gave to the colonj^ a militia force ; that influence even 
prevailed with the Friends, from whom he obtained subscriptions 
for gunpowder under the specious plea of requiring the money 
for the purchase of " bread, flour, wheat, and other grain." 
Franklin himself accepted a military commission, and in the 
quality of colonel, exalted b}" compliment to "general," 
defended for several months the frontier, which then was in 
the neighborhood of Bethlehem, from the incursions of the 
Indians. 

About this time the inevitable and interminable squab- 
bles between the Assembly and the Penns had reached a 
crisis. The governors of Pennsylvania were the deputies of 
the Penns, and ruled the province under "instructions," of 
which this was the chief, that under no circumstances must any 
public burden touch the estate of the proprietary. The colony 
had spent on the king's service in four 3'ears the sum of 
£218,000 sterling, and the Assembly in lajing their tax had 
assessed the Penn estate in the paltry sum of £550 a year. 
This the proprietors refused to pay, and the Assembly said 
they must pay. It being impossible to solve the difficulty with 
the governor, the Assembly concluded to send Franklin to 
England, commissioned as Agent of Pennsylvania, witli 



246 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

power to place the affairs of that Commonwealth on a more 
satisfactory footing. In the pursuit of this business he spent 
some five 3'ears in England, with the result that the king in 
Privy Council decided that the estates of the Penns should bear 
their due proportion of the taxes. On his return to Philadel- 
phia, in 1772, the Assembly voted him £3,000 sterling for his 
services in England, and their thanks. 

These long and successful negotiations in England, which had 
made him personally acquainted with many of the most distin- 
guished and influential people there, were the years of his ap- 
prenticeship in diplomacy. Two 3'ears later, when Mr. Gren- 
ville's purpose to tax the colonies by the imposition of a stamp 
duty filled America with indignation, the Assembly of Penn- 
sylvania elected Franklin their agent with instructions to use 
his influence with the ministry in England to prevent the 
passage of such an act. He accordingly returned to that 
country late in 1764, but his efforts were unavailing. The 
Stamp Act was to go into effect on Nov. 1, 1765, and it was 
known in England that the colonies had refused to obey it. 
Franklin now used every weapon at his command to effect its 
repeal. Among the numerous witnesses examined b}- Parlia- 
ment on American affairs, FnCnklin was the most important ; 
the information he gave was so clear, able, and just, and his 
presence of mind so remarkable, that when the question of the 
Feb. 21, repeal came up, it was passed by a majority of 108 
1766 voices. The announcement was hailed in America 
with unbounded enthusiasm, but followed in England by a 
strong reaction, and Franklin, unable to prevent a disruption, 
the breaking of ' ' the beautiful porcelain vase " of the British 
May 5, empire, as he called it, shook the dust of England 
1775 from his feet, and returned to Philadelphia. 

A day after his arrival, the Assembly of Pennsylvania 
elected him by a unanimous vote a delegate to the second Con- 
gress, in the labors of which he bore a conspicuous part ; he 
served on ten committees ; he was chosen one of the committee 



1766-1776.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 247 

of five to draft the Declaration of Independence ; he was one of 
the committee of three, elected to conduct the Conference with 
lord Howe ; and when through his instrumentality, intelligence 
came of the friendly feelings of France for the Thirteen United 
Colonies, and Congress resolved to send an embassy to that 
country, he was elected, conjointly with Silas Deane and Arthur 
Lee, to engage in that difficult and perilous service. 

The last-named persons were already in Europe on the ser- 
vice of the Secret Committee of Congress, the former in Paris, 
the latter in London, but their preliminary labors had been 
neither performed w^ith skill, nor crowned with success. 
Franklin arrived at Paris towards the close of Decem- r 

I \ IT f\ 

ber. The fame and celebrity he had justly won pre- 
ceded him, and gave him a most cordial reception. 

" No Englishman," says a recent English writer, " was ever 
so caressed in Paris, for the very reason that Franklin was, and 
was not, an Englishman." That is not the true reason ; he was 
caressed because he was Franklin. " Men," says a Frenchman, 
" imagined the}' saw in Franklin a sage of antiquity, come 
back to give austere lessons and generous examples to the 
moderns. The}^ personified in him the republic of which he 
was the representative and legislator. They regarded his vir- 
tues as those of his countrymen, and even judged of their 
physiognomy by the imposing and serene traits of his own. 
Happy was he who could gain admittance to see him in the 
house which he occupied. This venerable old man, it was said, 
joined to the demeanor of Phocion the spirit of Socrates." 

His appearance at Paris, his presence, tact, wisdom, and 
zeal, achieved in the darkest and most perilous years of the 
gigantic struggle for freedom as much as Washington accom- 
plished in the field. In the gloomy outlook of American affairs 
at the time of Franklin's arrival, the French government was 
not over-anxious for opening diplomatic relations, but it never- 
theless offered and gave unofficially the handsome sum of 
2,000,000 of francs to the use of " an illustrious Congress." 



248 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

The events in America were favorable neither to the political 
status nor to the financial resources of the young republic. 
France helped generously but timidly ; news came that Phila- 
delphia was in the hands of the British. An Englishman said 
to Franklin, " Well, doctor, Howe has taken Philadelphia." 
" I beg your pardon," rejoined the staunch old patriot, " Phila- 
delphia has taken Howe." And he was right. But on the 
heels of that news came the astounding tidings, which thrilled 
Europe, that Burgoyne and his whole army were prisoners of 
war. To Franklin and the envoys it was glorious news, the 
harbinger of better days, and the immediate precursor of the 
joyful message which they had to send to America, that the 
king of France had determined to conclude a treaty of alliance 
with the United States. 

A few weeks later the royal intention became fact in the 

Feb. 6, treaties of amity and commerce, and of alliance, con- 

1778 eluded between France and America ; but the formal 

announcement of the event did not take place until six weeks 

afterwards, when the envoys were presented to the 

JMARCH Ji\j» 

king. 
It was dj propos of this presentation that agreeably to the 
rigid etiquette of the court oT'Louis XVI., Franklin ordered a 
wig, then an indispensable article of court dress. When the 
wig-maker brought the wig and tried it on, he found to his 
chagrin that it was not a good fit. Franklin thought it was too 
small ; the wig-maker was furious at this reflection upon his 
work, protesting that that was not possible. But it was too 
small. At last, looking wistfully at the envoy, in a transport of 
rage (as some say) , or of pleasure at the discovery (as others 
report), he cried, " No, monsieur, the wig is not too small, but 
your head is too large." The doctor smilingly opined that 
that could hardly be a fault, as God, who could not err, 
had made his head. "Ah," rejoined the wig-maker, "the 
doctor's head had not the honor to be made in Paris ; for if 
it had, it would have been only half as large." And so for 



1778-1782.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 249 

want of getting a good-sized wig, Franklin went to court 
without one. 

This French alliance bore immediate fruit in the appointment 
of Mr. Gerard as ambassador to the United States, and in mate- 
rial aid without which the final and glorious issue might have 
been very different. Congress, inexperienced in the ways of 
diplomacy, had committed the radical fault of appointing a plu- 
rality of diplomatic representatives with co-ordinate powers, but 
after the arrival of Mr. Gerard, and not without his influence, 
rectified the matter by designating Dr. Franklin Sole Plenipo- 
tentiary at Paris. 

His vast influence, age and character, conspired to make 
him, not without the jealousy of his associates, the head and 
front of the mission. One day a large cake was sent to the 
room where the envoys were in session, bearing the inscription, 
" Le digne Franklin." Deane said, "As usual. Doctor, we 
have to thank you for our accommodation,^ and to appropriate 
your present to our joint use." " Not at all," rejoined Frank- 
lin, examining the inscription, " this must be intended for all the 
commissioners ; only, these French people cannot write English. 
They mean, no doubt, Lee, Deane, Franklin." "That might 
answer," added the suspicious Lee, "but we know that when- 
ever they remember us at all, they always put you first." 

The material aid obtained from France through Franklin's 
influence consisted in money to the amount of 26,000,000 of 
francs, and the despatch of an army and a fleet whose hearty 
and effective co-operation with the American army compelled 
Cornwallis to surrender at Yorktown. 

That event virtually closed the war. "Oh, God, it is all 
over !" exclaimed lord North at its announcement. feb. 2S, 
Three months later the House of Commons passed an 1782 
address to the king, soliciting him " to stop the prosecution of 



1 In allusion to the house they occupied at Passy, most generally offered 
to Franklin and his associates, by Mr. de Chaumont, free of rent. 



250 MODERN HISTORY, [A.D. 

any further hostilities against the revolted colonies, for the pur- 
pose of reducing them to obedience by force." That address 
was the harbinger of peace. 

Early in the preceding year Franklin had asked Congress to 
relieve him of his office, but that Body not only declined to ac- 
cept his resignation, but appointed him joint commissioner with 
Adams and Jay to negotiate for peace. 

Preliminary discussions took place early in the year, and 
paved the way for negotiations, in which Franklin bore a con- 
spicuous part, which resulted in the conclusion of a preliminary 
treaty of peace between the United States and Great Britain, 
Nov. 30, subject to the prefatory declaration that the "treaty 

1782 is not to be concluded until terms of peace shall be 
agreed upon between Great Britain and France." A few weeks 
later the preliminaries of the general peace wea'e signed at Ver- 
sailles. The war was over, the United States with the help of 
France were independent, and the venerable, undaunted cham- 
pion of the liberties of the young republic exclaimed, as he em- 
jan. 20, braced the duke de la Rochefoucault that day at dinner, 

1783 in the exuberance of grateful and patriotic delight, 
" My friend, could I have hoped, at my age, to enjoy such a 
happiness ! " - 

The definitive treaty of peace between Great Britain and the 
United States was signed in London, that between France and 
Great Britain at Versailles, Sept. 3, 1783. Congress ratified it 
Jan. 14, 1784, and the king of England, April 9, 1784. 

Pending the acceptance of his third request for being recalled, 
Franklin, though afflicted with a painful malad3% was busily 
and pleasantly occupied with diplomatic duties, and his favorite 
pursuits. Congress at length accepted his resignation, and 
appointed Mr. Jefferson his successor. 

His last official act in Europe was the signing of the treaty 
with Prussia, which Washington styled the most original and 
the most liberal treaty ever negotiated between independent 
powers. 



1782-1787.] BENJAMIN FRANKLIN. 251 

On the eve of his departure the king of France instructed his 
minister to write to him, " I can assure 3'ou, sir, that the esteem 
the king entertains for 3'OU does not leave you anything to wish, 
and that his majesty will learn with real satisfaction that 
your fellow-citizens have rewarded, in a manner worthy of you, 
the important services that you have rendered them." The. 
king's portrait set in 408 brilliants accompanied the farewell 
letter. 

So after affectionate leave-taking, universally beloved, re- 
spected, and regretted, he returned to Philadelphia, greeted by 
the hearty welcome of his family and fellow-citizens. He 
was now in the 79th year of his life, and had hoped to spend 
the remainder of it in privacy, but that was not to be. 
He was elected governor of Penns3ivania, and he wrote on the 
subject, "I had not firmness enough to resist the unanimous 
desire of my country folks ; and I find myself harnessed again 
in their service for another year. They engrossed the prime of 
my life. They have eaten my flesh, and seem resolved now to 
pick my bones." 

For three terms he filled the gubernatorial chair of Pennsyl- 
vania, and then retired from public office. 

He had also taken a prominent part in the Constitutional Con- 
vention of 1787, concerning which two incidents may interest 
the reader. After the Convention had been in session npwards 
of two months, and the differences between the members led 
often to excited and acrimonious debates, Franklin proposed as 
a salutary means for the restoration of calmness the adoption of 
a rule requiring the daily sessions to be opened with prayer. 
But the motion could not be carried, and Franklin observed in 
a note to his speech, " The Convention, except three or four 
persons, thought pra3'er unnecessary." 

At the close of the Convention, Franklin in a characteristic 
speech urged those dissatisfied with the Constitution to sacrifice 
their private opinions to the public welfare, and induced them to 
sign the document. " AYhile the last members were signing," 



252 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

writes Madison, " Dr. Franklin, looking towards the president's 
chair, at the back of which a rising sun happened to be painted, 
observed to a few members near him, that painters had found 
it difficult to distinguish in their art a rising from a setting sun. 
' I have,' said he, ' often and often, in the course of the session, 
and the vicissitudes of my hopes and fears to its issue, looked 
at that behind the president, without being able to tell whether 
it was rising or setting ; but now, at length, I have the happi- 
ness to know that it is a rising and not a setting sun.' " 

Busy, and profitably busy, to the last moment of his life, ever 
cheerful, affectionate, benevolent, his mind undimmed by age, 
in great suffering of pain, his eyes fixed upon a picture of the 
Saviour, Franklin quietly expired, surrounded by his family, 
April 17, 1790, in the 85th year of his life. 

Perhaps the briefest, truest, and most unexceptionable esti- 
mate of his life and worth is contained in Washington's letter 
to him received during his illness. "If to be venerated for 
benevolence, if to be admired for talents, if to be esteemed for 
patriotism, if to be beloved for philanthropy, can gratify the 
human mind, you must have the pleasing consolation to know 
that you have not lived in vain. And I flatter myself that it 
will not be ranked among theleast grateful occurrences of your 
life to be assured that, so long as I retain my memory, you will 
be recollected with respect, veneration, and affection by your 
sincere friend." 

REFERENCES. 

Weems, " Life of Franklin " ; Sparks, " Life and Works of Frank- 
lin " ; Barton, " Life and Times of Benjamin Franklin " ; Bigelow, 
" The Life of Benjamin Franklin, written by Himself." 



:l|; 




10 Longitude Eas 



20 _ 30 




from Greenwich 30 



Fi.-k k Sm. n. y. 



1 



1769-1821.] NAPOLEON I. 253 



NAPOLEON I. [1769-1821 

I. 

At Ajaccio, in the island of Corsica, acquired by France 
in 1768, Napoleon, the second son of Carlo Bonaparte, a 
lawyer, was born Aug. 15, 1769. Educated in the military 
school of Brienne, a town in the Champagne, he excelled in 
mathematics and ancient history, and one of his teachers pre- 
dicted that under favorable circumstances the youthful Corsican 
would make his mark. In 1785 the lad, only fourteen 

' -^ Sept. 1. 

years old, was appointed second lieutenant in the royal 
artillery, and gained the respect and confidence of his superiors 
by his attainments and exemplary conduct. At the outbreak of 
the Revolution he sided with the people, and ordered as lieutenant- 
colonel the bombardment of Toulon in 1793, which had declared 
against the Republic. Promoted general, he was ar- feb. 6, 
rested as a partisan of Robespierre, and though released, J 794 
displaced from the service. In 1795 he was again in Paris seek- 
ing active employment, and obtained the appointment of 
commander of the troops for the defence of that city. 
His skill and resolute bearing frustrated the attempt of the 
National Guard, which mustered 30,000, to take by force the 
Tuileries, where the Convention was in session. Napoleon 
directed a terrible cannonade and routed the Guard. A few 
months later he was appointed commander-in-chief of feb. 23, 
the army of Italy, and on the eve of his departure mar- 1796 
ried Josephine, the widow of general Beauharnais. On the 9th 
March, 1796, he was married, and twelve days later set out for 
his command. That marriage was quite romantic. One morning 
a boy of about thirteen appeared before the general, weeping and 



254 MODERN HISTORY. ^ [A.D. 

unable to speak. Encouraged by the kind words of Napoleon, 
the boy said he was Eugene Beauharnais, and had come to 
reclaim his father's sword, whose valor and patriotism had 
been rewarded on the block. He got the sword, and when 
his mother, alike famed for beauty, amiability, and kindness, 
came to thank the general, he fell in love with her ; his affec- 
tion was returned, and marriage ensued. 

Before we proceed, it is necessarj' to remember that in con- 
sequence of an agreement between Leopold II., emperor of 
Austria, and Frederic William II., king of Prussia, for the 
restoration of the old regime in France, Louis XVI. had de- 
clared war against the emperor Francis II., who had succeeded 
his father Leopold in 1792, and hostilities had begun in the 
Netherlands and on the Rhine. In 1793 England and the 

other powers joined this leaoue ao-ainst France, which 
March 7. i J & o i 

is known as the ^'- First Coalition" 

The Peace of Basle, concluded in 1795, led to the withdrawal 
of Prussia. The Italian army, led by Napoleon, marched against 
Austria. The rapidity of his exploits was as wonderful as those 
exploits themselves. He found his command half as strong as 
he had expected, demoralized, without discipline, half-starved, 
and half -clad. Yet with that army of about 30,000 foot, 3,000 
horse, and 30 pieces. Napoleon marched against the Austrian 
and Sardinian host of at least double that strength in numbers 
and a park of artillery of 200 pieces, and by the magic of his 
impassioned oratory inspired them with invincible courage. 
"Soldiers!" he said to them, "3^ou are bare and ill-fed ; the 
government owes you much, and cannot give 3'ou anything. I 
admire 3'our patience and courage amid these rocks ; they will 
not add to your glory. But I will lead you to the most fertile 
plains of the world, and place rich provinces and large cities 
in your power ; there 3^ou will find honor, glory, and riches. 
Soldiers of Italy ! 3'ou will not fail in courage and constanc}^" 

They did not fail, and under his victorious lead, defeated in 
four battles, fought in a fortnight, the Sardinian army, and 



1792-1797.] NAPOLEON I. 255 

compelled the king to sue for peace. Eighteen days later 
he vanquished the Austriaus in the battle of Lodi, mayio, 
occupied Milan, and was virtually master of Lom- 1796 
bardy. The Italian allies of Austria, the dukes of Parma and 
Modena, pope Pius VI., and the king of Naples sued for peace. 
He laid their territories under heavy contributions in money, and 
his soldiers were not slow to enrich themselves at the ex- 
pense of the conquered. Pavia was sacked, and learned robbers 
from Paris undertook on scientific principles the spoliation of 
the choicest treasures of art and learning. The emperor 
Francis II. resolved to recover Lombardy and sent a second 
army, 60,000 strong, under Wurmser, into Italy. He was 
defeated in several battles and forced, with the remnant of 
his troops, to stand the hardships of a protracted siege in the 
fortress of Mantua. A third Austrian army, 50,000 strong, 
was sent to his relief ; the Austrians at first were successful, 
but in the battle of Areola, near Verona, which lasted jsrov. i5-i7, 
three days, met with a crushing defeat, followed about ^ 796 
two months later by the complete rout at Rivoli of a jan. i4, 
fourth army, 50,000 strong, and the surrender at 1797 
Mantua of Wurmser, who was starving. 

The undisputed master of Italy, Napoleon founded under the 
auspices of France the "Cisalpine Eepublic," embracing Milan, 
Modena, Bologna, and Ferrara, and the "Ligurian Republic" 
of Genoa. The Director}- offered an armistice to the emperor, 
which was rejected in consequence of the successful operations 
carried on by archduke Charles over the French on the Rhine. 
The archduke was ordered to Italy ; his force, composed in the 
main of raw recruits, was unable to stand before the victorious 
veterans of Napoleon, and began an orderl}' retreat, while tlie 
French commander pushed at the head of his army through the 
Tyrol, and Styria, as far as Leoben, a town in the latter prov- 
ince, and only 180 miles distant from Vienna. There an 
armistice was agreed to, which led to the treaty of oct. it, 
Campo Formio, agreeably to which Austria ceded to 1797 



256 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

France the Netherlands, Lombardy, and some smaller terri- 
tories, and secured in return part of the dominions of Venice. 

An incident connected with that famous treaty is the read- 
ing of the first draft to Napoleon, who, hearing the opening 
sentence, "The emperor of Germany recognizes the French 
republic," bade the reader stop, exclaiming with great vehe- 
mence : "Erase that article. The French Republic is like the 
sun, and he is blind that does not see it ! " He added in a 
calmer tone the sentiment, prophetic of the future course of 
the speaker : " The French people is its own master : to-day it 
makes a republic, to-morrow it may create an aristocracy, and 
the day after perhaps a monarchy. This is its inalienable 
right. The form of its government is a purely domestic 
affair." 

Austria ceded also to France the left bank of the Rhine from 
Basle to Andernach, and the supremacy of that country may be 
illustrated by the facts that the French general Berthier con- 
verted the Estates of the Church into a Roman Republic and 
-I carried the pope (Pius VI.) as prisoner to Paris. 
French troops invaded Switzerland and established a 
Helvetic Republic subject to France, and in the following 
year, the victories of Napoleon had made her mistress of 
Italy, Switzerland, the left bank of the Rhine, Belgium, and 
Holland. 

A contemplated invasion of England had given to Napoleon, 
in 1797, the vague appointment of commander-in-chief of the 
invading army, which began its operations in Egypt as the gate- 
way to India. Turkey and France being at peace, the invasion 
of that country as a dependency of the former was an act of 
Mat 19, wauton and brutal outrage. Napoleon left Toulon 
1 798 with an armament of 40,000 men, carried on 350 trans- 
ports and convoyed by 24 men-of-war ; he safely avoided the 
English fleet commanded by Nelson/ and took Malta through 
the treachery of the French Knights in that island. 

Disembarking July 1, in the neighborhood of Alexandria, he 



1798-1799.] NAPOLEON I. 257 

took that city and marched upon Cairo, engaged in constant 
skirmishes with the Mamelukes. i Arrived at the Pyramids, 
whose sight filled the soldiers with amazement, Napoleon ex- 
claimed : "Soldiers, you are here to free this land from bar- 
barism, to civilize the East, and to save this beautiful part of 
the world from the yoke of Eu gland. A battle is at hand. 
Remember that four thousand years look down upon you from 
these majestic heights ! " 

According to an ancient Arab tradition the master of Cairo 
is master Egypt. The Mamelukes knowing that their fate hung 
on the issue of the battle, opposed to Napoleon an army of 
60,000, and fought bravely. Murad-Bey their general, though 
a skilful strategist, had to bow to the master genius of Napoleon, 
who scored, July 21, a splendid victory in the "Battle of the 
P^'ramids," entered Cairo four days later, and made himself 
master of Egypt. The splendid success of the army had an 
offset in the entire destruction of the fleet by Nelson at Abukir, 
Auo-. 1. That crushinoj blow annihilated the ulterior designs of 
Napoleon, for his base was destroyed, and he was unable 
either to return to France, or to pursue his plans against the 
East Indies. Quick and daring, he ordered his victorious 
legions to invade Syria. In February, 1799, he crossed the 
isthmus of Suez, took Gaza and Jaffa by storm (the latter on 
March 7), and arrived before Acre, the ancient Ptolemais, ten 
days afterwards. All his efforts to capture that stronghold 
miscarried, and on May 20 he began his retreat to Egypt. A 
column of fire marked the line of his march. Leaving his army 
under the command of general Kleber, he sailed from ^^^ ^3. 
Alexandria, narrowly escaped capture by the English 
fleet, and landed near Frejus, in France. 

The political situation in Europe had undergone a change 



1 They were originally Circassian slaves, who had embraced the Islam 
and acquired their freedom. Up to this time tliey were, tiiough Turkish 
subjects, the real rulers of Egypt. 



258 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

during Napoleon's absence in Egypt. The Second Coalition 
against France had been formed in 1799 by England, Austria, 
Russia, and Turkeyo The Austrian archduke Charles had driven 
the French out of Switzerland and Germany, while Austrian 
and Russian troops had restored the Papal States and the king- 
dom of Naples. The return of Napoleon was hailed with jubi- 
lant rejoicing, and his progress to Paris was a continuous ova- 
tion. The Council of the Ancients made him commander-in- 
chief, but in the Council of the Five Hundred, assembled at 
St. Cloud, the republican members to the number of from 200 
to 300 raised the cry, "Death to the tyrant! down with the 
dictator!" and rushed upon Napoleon, who calmly left the 
chamber, and having assured himself of the support of his sol- 
diers, ordered the chamber to be cleared. During the night 
measures were taken for the overthrow of the Directory and 
the establishment of the Consulate. This took place on the 18tli 
Brumaire, i.e., Nov. 9, 1799. Under the new Provisional Con- 
stitution, Napoleon, Sieyes, and Roger-Ducos were appointed 
consuls for ten years, the former being named First Consul, and 
clothed with the power of appointing to all public offices, of 
proposing all public measures in peace or war, and of holding 
supreme command of all civiL^nd military affairs. 
Dec. 13, The Ncw Constitution, ratified by a popular vote of 

1799 3,011,007, was proclaimed, and under it Napoleon was 
First Consul ; Cambac^res, Second Consul ; and Lebrun, Third 
Consul. Napoleon took up his residence in the Tuileries about 
the close of January, 1800. 

Among the first acts of the First Consul was one of peculiar 
interest to this country. 

The death of Washington was announced in the Legislative 
Body, Feb. 2, 1800 ; Napoleon ordered the adjournment of that 
assembly on tlie 7th day of that month as a mark of respect 
for the illustrious American, and for the same purpose com- 
manded that all the miUtary standards and ensigns of the 
French army should be covered with crape. 



1799-1802.] NAPOLEON I. 259 

After several months of extraordinary vigor in all the admin- 
istrative arms of the nation, the military genius of Napoleon 
burst forth anew in the resumption of hostilities against 
Austria, inaugurated by one of the most daring and magnificent 
achievements recorded in historj-. For such will ever be regarded 
his passage of the Alps with an army of 35,000, over the Great 
St. Bernard at an elevation of 7,600 feet, executed under most 
formidable difficulties with marvellous rapidity, skill, and secrecy. 
The army left the shores of the Lake of Geneva on Ma}' 13th, 
and on June 2d took Milan. Twelve days later was fought the 
decisive battle of Marengo, fiercely contested by the Austrians, 
which for the second time brought Northern Italy under French 
domination. On Dec. 3 of the same year general Moreau de- 
feated archduke John at Hohenlinden, and marched as far as 
Linz. The peace which was concluded in the Treaty of Lun6- 
ville, Feb. 9, 1801, gave to France those parts of Germany 
which lay on the left bank of the Rhine. Peace was concluded 
soon after with the other continental powers ; a famous Con- 
cordat was signed by Napoleon and pope Pius VII. ; and in the 
Treaty of Amiens England and France buried the march 25, 
hatchet. 1802 

In January of 1802 Napoleon was made president of the 
Cisalpine Republic, and on Aug. 2 of the same 3^ear, a decree 
of the French Senate declared him consul for life. 

The interval of peace was devoted by Napoleon to adminis- 
trative measures. A new body of laws, loosely called the Code 
Napoleon^ was drawn up by the most able lawyers of France, 
which embraced everj^ department of law, civil, criminal, mili- 
tar}-, and commercial. He regulated the affairs of the Church, 
restored public worship, established schools, ordered the con- 
struction of highways and canals, and promoted the general 
order and prosperity of France b}^ measures which ofte4i owed 
their efficacy less to their real excellence or merit than to the 
indomitable strength of the personal will of the First Consul. 
The discovery of the dangerous P>our])on conspiracy against him. 



260 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

in which were involved Cadoudal, Pichegru, Moreau, and the 
duke of Enghien, and which was thought to have been counte- 
nanced in England, led to his elevation from the position of 
consul to that of emperor. Cadoudal was executed, Pichegru 
died in prison, Moreau was banished and lived for some time in 
New Jersey, and the duke of Enghien, whose share in the con- 
spirac}' has never been proved, was really murdered. The par- 
tisans of Napoleon loudly proclaimed that lasting security and 
peace could not be had unless the First Consul were made 
emperor, and the transmission of the office hereditary in his 
family. An appeal to the nation ratified by an overwhelming 
vote the acts of the Legislature necessary to the establishment 
of the empire. The Senate, in a body, informed him of the 
change, and the event was proclaimed to the world May 20, 
1804. Napoleon said to the Senate : " Whatever promotes the 
welfare of my country is essential to my happiness. I accept 
the title which you judge will be useful to the nation. I submit 
to the will of the people the law of succession, and hope that 
France may never regret the honors with which it invests my 
family. At any rate, my spirit will leave my descendants the 
moment they cease to be worthy the love and confidence of the 
great nation." ""^' 

Dec. 2, Popc Pius VII. anointed Napoleon and Josephine 

1804 in the cathedral of Notre Dame, on their foreheads 
and hands, offering this prayer: "Almighty and everlasting 
God, deign to confer tln'ough my hands the riches of thy grace 
and blessing on thy servant Napoleon, whom, our personal un- 
worthiness notwithstanding, we consecrate this da}^ in thy name 
emperor." After this prayer and office. Napoleon and Jose- 
phine again approached the altar, and when the pope had blessed 
their crowns. Napoleon brusquely seized that provided for his 
use and crowned himself; he then took the other crown and 
placed it on the head of the empress. 

Then seated in his throne, the crown upon his head, his hand 
upon the Gospels, he took the oath of office. A herald pro- 



1804.] NAPOLEON I. 261 

claimed with a loud voice, "The most glorious and august 
Emperor Napoleon, Emperor of the French, is crowned and 
enthroned. Long live the Emperor ! " 

Loud rang the echoes of the brilliant assembl}' collected within 
the walls of the beautiful cathedral*, ■•' Long live the Emperor! 
Long live the Empress ! " and the imperial pair, followed b}' the 
glittering retinue of the attendant multitude, returned to the 
Tuileries. 

Soon afterwards the Cisalpine Republic proclaimed Napoleon 
"king of Italy," and the emperor, accompanied b}^ Josephine, 
proceeded to Italy, and on May 26, 1805, crowned himself, in 
the cathedral of Milan, king of Italy, with the ancient golden 
crown, encircled with a band of iron, which was worn of old 
by the kings of Lombardy, and had been used b}' Charlemagne, 
exclaiming, "God gives it to me. Woe to the hand that 
toucheth it." The Ligurian Republic was united to France ; 
and prince Eugene, the son of Josephine, an# adopted hy 
Napoleon, was solemnly invested Viceroy of Italy by the 
emperor himself. 

The self-coronation of Napoleon was of course intentional 
and of deep political significance. Charlemagne had received 
his crown at the hands of the pope to the injury of the imperial 
office ; Napoleon, by his act, wished to avoid the appearance of 
spiritual subjection to the court of Rome. 



262 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 



NAPOLEON I. 
II. 

The elevation of Napoleon to the imperial state did not 
please the Great Powers ; England and Russia refused to recog- 
ApRiLii, nize him, and formed with Austria a new alliance 
1805 known as the Third Coalition. Among the Lesser 
Powers, Prussia remained neutral, while Bavaria, Wiirtemberg, 
and Baden entered into alliance with Napoleon. Hanover, as 
belonging to Great Britain, was invaded and held by the French, 
who to the number of 160,000 entered Germany. The first 
important event took place in Southern Germany. The Aus- 
trian general Mack, who was at Ulm in command of 23,000 
troops, was surprised by Napoleon, and forced to capitulate, 
Oct. 17.^ Less than a month later his legions entered the 
capital of Austria, and the emperor established his headquarters 
in the imperial castle of Schonbrunn, Nov. 13. The Rus- 
sian army, under the immediate command of the emperor 
Alexander I., was concentrated in Moravia, and augmented by 
the scattered Austrian troops under the command of their em- 
peror Francis, to a total of about 100,000 men. Napoleon, 
with less than half that number, hurried from Vienna to engage 
them. The opposing hosts met at AusterUtz, a town south of 
^^^ ^ Briinn. A terrific battle was fought, in which victory 
crowned the French. 
Among the terrible incidents of that terrible day is the 
drowning of an entire Russian column in a lake. A thick coat 

1 The French claim that this capitulation embraced 19 generals, 40,000 
soldiers, 3,000 horses, 40 ensigns, and 80 pieces of cannon. 



1805-1806.] NAPOLEON I. 263 

of ice covered its surface, and appeared to afford safe passage 
for the cannon of the retreating Russians. The French di- 
rected their fire on the ice, and ploughed it with their balls ; it 
gave way, and engulfed in the chilly waters of the lake the 
men, the horses, and the cannon. The Russians sought safety 
in retreat, and the emperor of Austria had to sue for peace. 
The Treaty of Presburg was signed Dec. 26, by which 
Austria had to cede her Italian possessions to the kingdom of 
Italy, the Tyrol to Bavaria, and her lauds in Southern Ger- 
many to Wiirtemberg and Baden. Napoleon moreover re- 
warded his allies with increased honors, for he promoted the 
electors of Bavaria and Wiirtemberg to kings, and the mar- 
grave of Baden to the dignity of a grand duke. By ju^y 12, 
the establishment of the Confederation of the Rhine 1806 
he coerced sixteen of the lesser potentates of Germany into 
alliance with himself, and abolished the German empire, which 
had existed a thousand years. Francis II. thenceforth called 
himself Emperor of Austria. 

The only check given to the insatiable lust of Napoleon's 
dominion was the destruction of the French and Spanish fleets 
at Trafalgar, near the Strait of Gibraltar by the Eng- oct. 21. 
lish admiral Nelson. But this was of secondary t805 
importance, and could not arrest the conqueror's progress, who 
at this time began to look upon himself as the predestined lord 
of Europe. This is not surprising, for he was not only intoxi- 
cated b}' actual and unparalleled success, but confirmed in his 
views by the fawning adulation of the greater part of Europe, 
for even the emperor of Russia, on the morrow after Auster- 
litz, sent him, by one of the French generals, this message, 
" Go tell your master that I shall retreat ; he wrought miracles 
yesterday which have increased ray admiration of his genius ; 
it is predestined by heaven that I shall require a century to 
raise my army to the level of his." 

In the consciousness of his irresistible strength he deposed 
and made kings, and changed the geography of Europe as he 



264 



MODERN HISTORY. 



[A.D. 



saw fit. The news of the landing of English and Russian 
troops in Southern Italy he received with the declaration, 
" Ferdinand has ceased to rule Naples," and ordered Massena 
to conquer Naples and make his brother Joseph king. His 
brother Louis, who had married Hortensia Beauharnais, the 
step-daughter of Napoleon, was made king of Holland. Napo- 
leon III. was their son. 

It has been stated that Prussia, ruled since 1797 by Frederic 
William III., had remained neutral. Perceiving that the Rhen- 
ish Confederation was designed to weaken and finally subject 
to French rule the leading powers of Germany, that king made 
Oct. 8, peace with England and Sweden, secured the alliance 
1806 of Russia, and declared war against Napoleon. 

The Prussian army, including a Saxon contingent of 34,000 
troops, numbered 137,000, and was commanded by the duke of 
Brunswick, a man 72 years of age. The French who marched 
against it numbered 200,000 and worsted the Prussian 
advance in an engagement at Saalfeld, Oct. 10. The main 
body of the Prussians took positions at Auerstadt and Jena, 
and in two battles fought on the same day, Oct. 14, was 
not only defeated, but annihilated by the French. The king 
of Prussia, with the scattered'remnants of his army, was forced 
to retire to East Prussia. 

The French occupied Berlin, and there Napoleon issued the 
famous decree against England, by which all the ports 
of Europe were to be closed against British ships, 
and British manufactures were forbidden to be brought to the 
Continent. 

Three days after the battle of Jena, the elector of Saxony 
joined the Rhenish Confederation, and was made by Napoleon 
king of Saxony, Dec. 11, 1806. 

The Prussian army, newl}' recruited, and strengthened by an 
auxiliary force of Russians, engaged and defeated the French 
Feb. 8, in the sanguinary battle of Prussian Eylau. Prussia 
failing to follow up the advantage she had gained, 



Oct. 27. 



1807 



1806-1808.] NAPOLEON I. 265 

Napoleon collected fresh troops and wiped out his de- 
feat in the decisive battle of Friedland, fought in June. 

In an interview between the emperors of Russia and France, 
and the king of Prussia, held on a raft in the river Niemen, oft' 
Tilsit, the preliminaries of a peace were discussed, and the 
Treaty of Tilsit was signed, July 7, 1807. The terms of that 
treaty stripped Prussia of all her possessions between the 
Rhine and the Elbe, and these, with the principalities of Bruns- 
wick and Hesse- Cassel, were erected into the kingdom of West- • 
phalia, which was given to Jerome, the youngest brother of 
Napoleon. Prussia also lost her Polish possessions, which were 
granted to the pliant king of Saxony. Thus ended the Prusso- 
Russian War of 1806 and 1807. 

In the latter year the Great Peninsular War began with the 
French conquest of Portugal occasioned by the refusal of the 
prince-regent of that country to carry into effect the Berlin 
decree in regard to British shipping. In the next year Napo- 
leon forced the royal family of Spain to abdicate, and ordered 
his brother Joseph to exchange the crown of Naples for that of 
"Spain and the Indies." Joachim Murat, one of the soldier 
adventurers in the train of Napoleon, who had married Caroline, 
the youngest sister of the conqueror, and contributed not a 
little to the victories of Marengo and Austerlitz, was julym, 
proclaimed king of Naples. 1808 

The news of the abdication of the lawful royal family caused 
^ an insurrection in Spain, and Joseph was forced to leave Mad- 
rid a week after his arrival. Portugal also rose in arms, and an 
English expedition, 30,000 strong, under sir John Moore, landed 
in the Peninsula, and drove the French out of Portugal. In 
October Napoleon himself invaded Spain, defeated the Span- 
iards, and entered Madrid. The English were driven deu. 6, 
to the coast, and the people to the mountains, whence 1808 
they carried on a well-sustained and successful warfare against 
the invaders. 

Acts of violence similar to the unjust war with Spain had 



2Q6 MODERN HISTORY. [AD 

taken place in Italy, where Napoleon had seized Tuscany (1807) 
and the Papal States (1809), and carried off the pope. Austria, 
resolved to stem the tide of aggression, summoned all Germany 
to arms, and declared war against Napoleon, April 15, 1809. 
A French army of 212,000 engaged the Austrians, 220,000 
strong, in the battle of Ratisbon, and compelled them to retreat 
into Bohemia. Napoleon entered Vienna for the second time. 
May 13, 1809. The Austrian commander, archduke Charles, 
rallied his forces, hastened to the relief of the city, and in two 
fiercely contested battles at Aspern and EssHng, May 21 and 
22, defeated Napoleon. Want of reinforcements prevented his 
making the victory decisive, while Napoleon, who had ordered 
fresh troops into the field, was enabled in the battle of 
' ' Wagram to drive back the Austrians, and to reap the 
Oct. 14, benefits of the Treaty of Schonbrunn, b}' which Austria 
1809 was stripped of large territorial possessions, and com- 
pelled to submit to the marriage of Maria Louisa, the emperor's 
daughter, with Napoleon, who on purely selfish grounds heart- 
lessl}^ divorced the childless Josephine, and married the 
Austrian archduchess, April 2, 1810. 

When on the 20th of March, 1811, the king of Rome was 
born to Napoleon, he was at the^zenith of his glory, and regarded 
that event as the pledge and guarantee of the future glorj^ of 
his dynasty. It was easy for him to appoint his brothers and 
generals kings of the countries he had conquered, but difficult 
to make them behave right. His brother Louis, king of Hol- 
land, did not come up to his expectations, and was accord- 
ingly deposed, while Holland and the whole of the northern 
coast of Germany were incorporated with the French empire. 

The consummation of that measure involved the seizure ot 
Oldenburg, and the deposition of the duke, nearly connected 
with the emperor of Russia. The latter resented the conduct of 
Napoleon, and ordered the decrees against British shipping to be 
relaxed. Thereupon Napoleon declared war against Russia, and 
thus began the Russian campaign. 



1809-1812.] NAPOLEON L 267 

A colossal army, numbering fully half a million of men, 
accompanied by an overwhelming train of artillery and imple- 
ments of war, beean to move towards Russia from all 

' =* June 23. 

quarters, and crossed the river Niemen in three divis- 1812 
ions. Napoleon captured AVilna, and caused the june 24. 
province of Lithuania to be laid waste. 

Alexander, who had only 315,000 men to oppose to the 
invading hosts, avoided an engagement, and pursued the policy 
of drawing them into the heart of the country, expecting that 
famine and the terrors of the Russiain winter would be his 
potent allies in their ultimate annihilation. So the Russians 
deliberately carried fire and destruction into the lands through 
which they passed, removed all the supplies, and lured the 
invader farther into the interior. Bloody but indecisive battles 
were fought at Smolensk and on the Moskwa^ (name of the 
river on which the city of Moscow is built) , in which Napoleon 
was victor. 

When the news became known in that city, the garrison and 
the greater part of the population deserted it, and when Napo- 
leon made his entry, on Sept. 14, into that ancient and magnifi- 
cent capital, it was with the intention of spending the winter 
there. "The French arm}^," he said, "will be like a ship 
caught in the ice, but it will renew the war in the spring." He 
established his headquarters in the Kremlin, i.e., the fortress 
with the palace of the czars, to witness from its commanding 
position the terrible conflagration which broke out on the 16th 
and raged with relentless fury until the 19th. It reduced 
Moscow to a heap of ashes, and buried the proud and daring 
schemes of the conqueror. The flames even threatened the 
Kremlin and compelled Napoleon to remove his headquarters 
to the palace of Petrowskie. He was in desperate straits ; the 
enemy surrounded him ; he had neither food nor shelter for his 

* The latter is also called the battle of Borodino, a village about 75 
miles north of Moscow, 



268 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

army, reduced in numbers, suffering from sickness and want, 
and exposed to the severity of a Russian winter. 

To stay meant death, and retreat he must. He sued for 
peace, but Alexander refused to treat with him while a single 
Frenchman remained on Russian soil. On Oct. 19, he began 
his retreat ; he left the neighborhood of Moscow with 120,000 
men, and so fearful were the terrors of the march through the 
wasted, frozen country, that at Smolensk, which he reached 
Nov. 4, his army was reduced to 40,000 fighting men. 

Afraid that the Russians would cut off his passage of 
the Beresina, his ragged, half -starved veterans were urged 
onward in hot haste, and compelled to throw two bridges over 
that river. The enemy was at hand and fired shells into the 
retreating braves. In the universal stampede each thought only 
of his own safety : the stronger and fleeter pushed the weaker 
aside or down, who either found death in the icy flood, or under 
the hoofs of the horses and the cannon- wheels. 

When, on the evening of Nov. 29, the passage was nearly 
completed, the bridges were set on fire in order to prevent the 
Russian pursuit, and the rear were made prisoners by the 
enemy. That disastrous passage cost Napoleon about 30,000 
men ; urging in excuse his -immediate presence at Paris, he 
left the miserable remnant of his host, and put Murat in com- 
mand. 

His departure was the signal of universal demoralization. 
The greater part of the horses had perished ; when a horse fell 
down, the famished soldiers rushed to devour it ; when a man 
fell in the ranks, his comrades stripped him of his clothes to 
cover their hands and feet. The second passage of the Niemen 
took place Dec. 16. 

A few figures may give some idea of the terrors of the 
Russian campaign. Of his grand army of 500,000 men only 
90,000 in all returned in abject misery ; 100,000 were prisoners, 
80,000 had fallen in battle, and 230,000 had found death in 
other ways. Some 200,000 bodies in a state of decomposition 



1812-1813.] NAPOLEON I. 269 

were picked up in the spring of 1813 on Russian soil, and burnt. 
Only 200 cannon had been saved ; all the baggage and military im- 
plements were lost. Such was the issue of the Russian campaign. 

The creation of a new army of 350,000 men b}- means of a 
conscription was the first and immediate act of Napoleon upon 
his return to Paris. At the head of that army he marched into 
Germany in the spring of 1813. 

General York, apprised of the retreat of Napoleon, concluded 
a treaty with Russia, and placed the auxiliary force under his 
command in the district between Memel and Tilsit, which was 
declared neutral. 

The king of Prussia, inspired by patriotism, and encouraged 
hy the report of the British victories in the Peninsula, called 
his people to arms, and entered into an alliance with Russia. 
Conviction was rapidly gaining ground that Napoleon was not 
only not invincible, but that his days were numbered. Two 
battles were fought in quick succession, the first at mat 2, 
Liitzen and Grossgorschen, the second at Bautzen, 1813 
in both of which Napoleon conquered, but not de- may 21. 
cisively. Napoleon's proposals for an armistice were rejected, 
and the Allies, now including besides Prussia and Russia, also 
Austria, which sent an army of 300,000, Sweden, which furnished 
an auxiliary force, and Great Britain, which supplied money, 
arms, and ammunition. 

Three grand army corps were set up to hold Napoleon in 
check. The army of the North, composed of Prussians, Rus- 
sians, and Swedes, numbering 120,000, and commanded by 
Bernadotte, rested on Brandenburg ; the Silesian army, num- 
bering 90,000 Prussians and Russians, commanded by Bliicher, 
held Silesia ; the main army, composed of 230,000 Austrians, 
Russians, and Prussians, was commanded by Schwarzenberg, 
and stood in Bohemia. In the battles which ensued. Napoleon 
defeated the main army at Dresden (Aug. 27, 28), but lost 
the battles of Kulm (Aug. 30), oii-the Katzbach (Aug. 26), of 
Grossbeeren (Aug. 23), and of Deunewitz (Sept. G). 



270 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

The successes of the Allies had drawn also Bavaria into the 
league. Napoleon felt his position at Dresden untenable, and 
moved towards Leipzig, hemmed in on three sides, where, on 
the daj^s from Oct. 16 to 19, was fought the Great Battle of 
Nations, in which Napoleon was absolutely defeated. On the 
latter day he began his retreat in hot haste, this time pur- 
sued by the victorious Allies, whose numbers had been aug- 
mented by the contingents of the lesser principalities, and who 
in three columns approached France, and slowly but surely 
fought their way to Paris. They took Montmartre by storm, 
and the emperor Alexander of Russia with the king of Prussia, 
at the head of their guards, made, amid the shouts of the popu- 
lace, their triumphant entry into Paris on March 31, 1814. 

The Senate deposed Napoleon, who was compelled to abdi- 
cate at Fontainebleau on April 11, 1814, and banished to the 
island of Elba. He was permitted to retain the title of empe- 
ror, and allowed an income of 6,000,000 francs. A British 
ship took him to his place of exile. 

The Allies abolished the empire, and restored the kingdom 
by elevating Louis XVIII., the brother of Louis XVI., to the 
May 30, throuc. With the new king the Powers concluded 
1814 the First Treaty of-T^aris, by which the geographical 
limits of France were restored to what they had been in 1792. 

A few months later the International Congress charged with 
the regulation of the political affairs of Europe in general, and 
Oct., more particularly with those of Germany, was con- 
1814 vened at Vienna. 

In the midst of their deliberations the Congress and all 
Europe were convulsed with the astounding intelligence that 
March 1, Napolcou had left Elba and landed in France. The 
1815 people received him with great enthusiasm, the army 
took up his cause. The news of his approach caused the king 
March 20, to make his escape from Paris, and the next day 
1815 the emperor entered the city in triumph. His return 
was solemnly denounced amid the protestations of the Powers, 



1814-1815.] NAPOLEON I. 271 

who massed at once large bodies of troops commanded b}' 
Schwarzenberg on the Upper Rhine, by Bliicher on the Lower 
Rhine, and by Wellington in the Netherlands. The latter, who 
had completed the deliverance of Spain the year before, was 
appointed by the Congress commander-in-chief. 

Murat, meanwhile, who had left Naples at the head of a hirge 
army, was defeated by the Austrians and fled to France. The 
National Assembly at Paris begged Napoleon to reassume the 
imperial estate, who, soon at the head of an army of 125,000 
men, began operations against the Allies. 

In his first encounter with them, at Liony, he de- 
feated Bliicher, and compelled Wellington to fall back 
on Waterloo, where was fought one of the most sanguinary 
battles of the century ; Napoleon attacked Wellino;- 

- ' ^ ° June 18. 

ton, and believed to have won the day, when the 
opportune arrival of Bliicher, who had marched round him, 
gave the death-blow to his hopes in his entire overthrow. He 
was compelled to seek safety in flight. 

The House of Representatives demanded his abdication, and 
required him to go into perpetual exile ; he went to Rochefort, 
intending to repair to the United States. The Allies entered 
Paris for the second time ; the}'^ abrogated tlie renewed domin- 
ion of Napoleon, known as the " Rule of the Hundred Days," 
and restored Louis XVIIL By the provisions of Concluded 
the Second Treaty of Paris, France was restricted to Nov.2o, i 8 1 5 
the territorial limits as the}' had existed in 1790, and required 
to pay an indemnity of 700,000,000 francs. 

Napoleon voluntarily sought the protection of England by 
going on board the Belleroplion ; but England, deeming it incom- 
patible with her duty to Europe to permit his landing, con- 
cluded to designate the island of St. Helena, a solitary rock in 
the southern Atlantic, 1,000 miles from the coast of Africa, as 
his future abode. He was transferred on board the aug. 6. 
Northumberland and conveyed to the distant island, 
where he arrived after a long voyage, and spent the ^'"^" ^^" 



272 



MODERN HISTORY. 



[A.D. 



last six years of his life, doubtless in wretched, though neces- 
sary captivity'. 

He died, after a 3'ear's bad health, May 4, 1821, and was 
buried with military honors, near a fountain whose waters had 
once been grateful to his lips. His last words were, " Head — 
army." Nineteen years later his remains were removed to 
France, and deposited in the H6tel des Invalides. 

To France he gave glory, not happiness ; and to the world at 
large, to millions of his fellow-men, he was a scourge. 



REFERENCES. 



Thiers, " History of the Consulate and of the Empire " 
Napoleon " ; A. Hugo, " History of the Emperor Napoleon. 



Alison, 



NOTE. 



Almost all the dates in the Life of Napoleon have been drawn 
from the emperor's personal notes, and other authentic records. 




1809-186S.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 273 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN. [isos-ises 

The father of Abraham Lincoln was a hardy pioneer who, as 

a poor farmer, was making but a scanty living in Kentuck}-, 

when the future President of the United States was born. The 

first seven years of his life were spent in poverty and fee. u, 

obscurit}' ; his father could not read or write, but 1809 

Abraham learned to read at the log cabin of a neighbor, and to 

pra}" at his mother's knees. The whole of his education was 

a few months' schooling and covered a very slender knowledge 

in reading, arithmetic, and writing. 

His father removed to Indiana, and if his method n 

[l816 
of travel was primitive and simple, it certainly was 

cheap and practical. A raft of logs lashed together, with a 

few boards set up slantwise for a temporary dwelling, conveyed 

the family down the Ohio to the primeval solitude of Southern 

Indiana, and there Abraham learned the use of the axe, the 

plow, and the rifle. 

All day long he toiled on the farm, but there was that within 
him which prompted to higher and nobler pursuits. At night, 
in the glare of a log fire, he sat reading such books as he could 
get loaned, or bought as he grew older. At eighteen his 
library numbered six books, of which the Bible, the Pilgrim's 
Progress, and ^sop's fables were his favorites ; and from a 
borrowed cop}' of Weems' "Life of Washington" he learned 
the stor}' of the Revolution and of the First President. 

On his way to Washington, more than forty years later, speak- 
ing of that reading at Trenton, and referring to the struggle 
there, the crossing of the river, the contest with the Hessians, 
and the great hardships then endured, said, "I recollect think- 



274 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

ing tlien, boy even though I was, that there must have been 
something more than common that those men struggled for. . . . 
" I am exceeding!}' anxious that this Union, the Constitution, 
and the Uberties of the people, shall be perpetuated in accord- 
ance with the original idea for which the struggle was made, and 
I shall be most happy indeed if I shall be an humble instrument 
in the hands of the Almighty, and of this, his almost chosen 
people, for perpetuating the object of that great struggle." So 
he read to good purpose, and as he read he thought, and the 
thought remained and sustained him to the last. 

At nineteen he went as a hired hand on a Mississippi flat- 
-| boat, at $10 a month, and visited New Orleans.- On his 
return the family concluded to settle on the rich bot- 
tom land of the Sangamon, in Illinois, and the hardy, strong, 
and useful lad lent a helping hand ; he drove the cattle on the 
road, assisted in building a cabin, and with his sturd}' arms split 
3,000 rails to enclose the farm. This is the origin of the political 
nickname of " Rail-splitter" by which he was often called. 

In Benjamin Franklin's time our good friends, the French, did 
not excel in writing English, and in our own time they do not 
seem to study it much, for a learned authority in French Letters 
gravely records the startling^intelligence that Abraham Lincoln 
was called a " Rail-spitter " because he cut the ties or sleepers 
for the railroad. He appears to think that "to spit" rails is 
to cut them. 

Abraham, however, did not remain at home, and ready 

for anything, pursued a variety of callings. Resuming work 

on a Mississippi flatboat, he exchanged boating for a clerkship 

in a country store, and forsook the counter for a captaincy 

-1 in the Black Hawk War. At the close of the campaign 
1 332 

he returned to civil life, filling in succession the duties 

of bookkeeper, postmaster, and surveyor. In the last capacity 

he formed and executed the project of studying law, surveying 

land by day, and reading law-books at night, which were loaned 

to him by a legal firm after oflEice hours, and had to be returned 



1830-1846.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN, 275 

for use the next morning. At the age of twenty-five r- 
he was sent to the Legislature, and re-elected three 
times. Charmed with political life, his reputation for ability, 
and his popular address, gave him influence, especially in a can- 
vass of the State for Henry Clay, who had been nominated for 
the presidency. The defeat of his candidate, however, p 
led to his own election to Congress, where he voted 
with the Whig party, and opposed the extension of slavery. 

"In the course of my law reading" Lincoln said, "I con- 
stantly came upon the word demonstrate, and I asked myself. 
What do I mean when I demonstrate, more than when I reason 
or iJrove — what is the certaintj^ called demonstration ? Having 
consulted dictionaries and books of reference to little purpose, 
I said to m3'self , ' Lincoln, you can never make a lawyer, if you 
do not understand what demonstrate means.' 1 had never had 
but six months' schooling in m}' life ; but I now left my place 
in Springfield, and went home to my father's, and stayed there 
till I could give any proposition of the six books of Euclid at 
sight." It was thus that he improved himself, and became a 
self-made man. 

In the presidential canvass which resulted in the election of 
James Buchanan, Lincoln was an active supporter of Fremont, 
and on two occasions canvassed the State, but unsuccess- 
fulW, as candidate for Senator against Douglas. His brilliant 
orator}' and skilful debate, especially in 1858, brought him 
prominently before the nation, and the Republican Convention 
which met in 1860 at Chicago nominated him for the presidency. 
There were three other candidates in the field : Douglas the 
choice of the Northern Democracy, Breckenridge the nominee 
of the Southern Democracy, and Bell, that of the "Union" 
party. The Democratic part}' being divided, and the Union 
part)^ hopelessly weak, the choice of the nation fell on Abraham 
Lincoln. 

The Southern leaders in Congress construed his election as 
inimical and perilous to the interests of the South, and belie v- 



276 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

ing that the heretical doctrine of State rights warranted the 
separation of States from the Union, carried into effect their 
long-threatened secession, and formed a separate government, 
Feb., called the "Confederate States of America." They 
1861 elected Jefferson Davis president, and Alexander H. 
Stephens vice-president of the new confederation, and seized 
the property of the United States, such as forts, arsenals, 
custom-houses, ships, etc., within the several seceded States. 

The General Government did not resist these violent and un- 
lawful measures. The sentiment of the chief executive expressed 
in his message to Congress ' ' that the power to make war against 
a State is at variance with the whole spirit and intent of the 
Constitution," and the well-known sympathy of a large part of 
the Cabinet with the secessionists, encouraged them to persevere 
in their course. 

All this had happened before Abraham Lincoln assumed his 
trust. He maintained a discreet silence as to his intentions, 
while his utterances breathed a spirit of conciliation and lofty 
patriotism. As the time for his inauguration drew nigh, he set 
out from Springfield, Illinois, and took a route which lay 
through many of the large cities of the countr}^, where his pres- 
ence and judicious speech lieepened the conviction that the 
affairs of the nation were about to pass into strong and able 
hands. The welcome accorded him was enthusiastic, and his 
progress was a continued ovation. 

Aware of rumors of a projected interference with his inaug- 
uration, especially at Baltimore, where Mr. Buchanan had been 
insulted four years before, the president elect had quietly taken 
measures which effectually prevented all disturbance, b}" his 
unexpected arrival at Washington some twelve hours earlier 
than the time appointed. 

The Address delivered at the time of his Inauguration was the 
noble utterance of patriotic devotion ; it announced his personal 
conviction " that in contemplation of universal law, and of the 
Constitution, the Union of these States is perpetual" ; "that no 



1846-1861.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 277 

State, upon its own mere motion, can lawfully get out of the 
Union ; that resolves and ordinances to that effect are legally 
void ; and that acts of violence, within any State or States, 
against the authority of tlie United States, are insurrectionary 
or revolutionary " ; and his purpose to take care "that the 
laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all the States." 

It dwelt with singular tenderness on the cherished convictions 
of the South, lovingly i^ointed out the superiority of lawful amity 
to unlawful violence, entreated the malcontents to pause ; and 
closed his appeal to their better nature in these words: "In 
your hands, my dissatisfied countrymen, and not in mine, is the 
momentous issue of civil war. The Government will not assail 
you. You can have no^ conflict without being yourselves the 
aggressors. You have no oath registered in Heaven to destroy 
the Government, while I shall have the most solemn one to 
' preserve, protect, and defend it.'" 

The answer to the Message on the part of the South was the 
opening of fire from the Confederate forts and batteries april 14, 
on Fort Sumter, resulting in its surrender by major ^861 
Anderson. This was the signal of war. On the day following 
the evacuation of the fort, Lincoln issued a requisition for 
75,000 troops for the suppression of the insurrection, and the 
people of the North responded by sending a volunteer force of 
300,000 men. 

The whole country. North and South, was in arms. Three 
(lays after the proclamation for troops, Lincoln issued another 
proclamation declaring the ports of South Carolina, Georgia, 
Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas to be 
blockaded; other war measures were taken, an extra session 
of Congress was convened, in which all the acts of the presi- 
dent referred to were approved and legalized, and abundant 
means were furnished him for the conduct of the war. 

Towards the close of this year, thanks to the indefatigable 
energy and wise administration of the Executive, the insurrec- 
tion had been concentrated, a large military force pressed upon 



278 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

it from the North and the West, and an imposing naval force 
maintained a vigilant blockade on the Atlantic coast. 

The military exploits of the second year of the contest were 
brilUant on both sides. The South could point to the victories 
of Jackson in the Shenandoah, of Lee on the Peninsula, to 
Bragg's raid in Kentucky, and to the battles of Cedar Moun- 
tain, Chickasaw Bluff, and Fredericksburg. 

But the Federal successes far eclipsed the achievements of 
the brave and heroic foe. There was a simultaneous movement 
from different sides. The operations of Farragut had opened 
the Mississippi ; Grant and Foote had captured Forts Henry 
and Donelson, and Island No. 10 ; Kentucky and Western Ten- 
nessee had been recovered to the Union ; captain Worden's 
Monitor had discomfited the Merrimac; general McClellan had 
turned the tide of the war in Virginia in the sanguinary battle 
at Antietam ; and Burnside in a series of dashing engagements 
had secured to the Union the coast of North Carolina. 

Lincoln, who had unbounded faith in the ultimate success of 
the cause of the Union, a large heart full of tender yearnings 
for the people of the South, and maintained an even and cheer- 
ful frame of mind in the darkest days of the dreadful fratricidal 
war, was wont to draw on a^^seemingly inexhaustible fund of 
anecdotes, and to settle perplexing questions by something that 
reminded him of something else. His readiness in this respect 
was something like Franklin's, with whom he had not a few 
things in common. An inquisitive visitor asked too many 
questions about the destination of Burnside's expedition. " My 
friend," said the president, " can you keep a secret? " " Yes, 
sir ! " was the answer. '' Then," rejoined the chief magistrate, 
' ' I will venture to inform you that the expedition has gone to sea." 

A friend of the writer told him an incident that happened at 
a party given by general Marcy, to which the President and the 
Cabinet had been invited. In the course of the evening the 
prestidigitator Hermann was introduced, who was going to per- 
form some of his tricks with cards. He took a pack, and, pre- 



1862-1863.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 279 

senting them to Mr. Lincoln, begged bim to shuffle them. 
" Oh, no," said the President, " hand them to Mr. Seward, for 
he does all my shuffling." One of these witty sayings is apt to 
remain forever associated with the memory of Lincoln, as illus- 
trating the shrewd wisdom acquired by him in the olden days 
in the Western wilds, which taught him the caution " not to 
swap horses in the middle of the stream." 

But b}' far the most important event in the second year of 
the war was the Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln had all 
along mu'sed his favorite measure of emancipation with com- 
pensation, which, though authorized by Congress, proved a 
failure ; and when the pressing necessit}' of some such measure 
gradually took shape in his mind, he resolved to make the free- 
dom of the slaves a votive offering of thanksgiving to God for 
victory. " I made," he said, " a solemn vow before God, that 
if general Lee was driven back from Maryland, I would crown 
the result by the declaration of freedom to the slaves." The 
battle of Antietam decided the matter, and, on the sept. 22, 
Monday following, he issued the proclamation, declar- 1862 
ing that " on the first day of January, 1863, all persons held as 
slaves within any State in rebellion against the United States 
shall be then, henceforth, and forever free." 

On New Year's day, emancipation was made abso- j- 
lute in the seceded States, and the proclamation then 
issued by the President declared that all persons held as slaves 
'' are and henceforward shall be free," and concluded with the 
important paragraphs : — 

" And I further declare and make known that such persons 
of suitable condition will be received into the armed service of 
the United States, to garrison forts, positions, stations, and 
other places, and to man vessels of all sorts in said service. 

" And upon this act, sincerely believed to be an act of jus- 
tice, warranted by the Constitution upon military necessity, I 
invoke the considerate judgment of mankind and the gracious 
favor of Almighty God." 



280 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

This " military necessit}^ " was disputed by the political oppo- 
nents of the Administration, which held that the emancipation 
of four millions of slaves, engaged in producing the staples 
which upheld the insurrection, was a capital blow struck at the 
vitals of the enemy, who without the products of such labor 
could not possibly maintain the continuance of a conflict aimed 
at the overthrow of the Union. 

Mr. Lincoln, while urging the continuance of the war with 
unabated vigor, declined the overtures of mediation made by 
France and England, obtained the leave of Congress for issuing 
letters of marque, and, for the purpose of replenishing the arnw 
by draft, all persons fit for military service between the ages of 
26 and 45 had to be enrolled ; and towards the close of the 
year, lie issued a proclamation offering a general amnesty to 
the insurgents, from which only military or civil leaders were 
excepted. 

During this 3'ear the South was victorious in the battles of 
Chickamauga and Chancellorsville, and in the contest for the 
possession of Charleston, but the Federal operations before 
Vicksburg, the Federal triumphs at Chattanooga and at Gettys- 
burg, told with terrible effect r^pon the sinking fortunes of the 
Confederacy. 

Mr. Lincoln felt that though the material strength of the 
Confederacy had been incurably impaired, its final overthrow 
could only be achieved by concerted action, and it was for this 
March 3, purpose that general Grant was made lieutenant-gen- 
1864 eral in command of all the forces of the United States. 
So effectual were his efforts that at the close of the year 
the gigantic contest was virtually confined to Virginia, and 
the days of the Confederacy were numbered. Although the 
conduct of the war was sharply criticized in the North, and 
every effort was made by the Democratic party to prevent his 
re-election, his hold upon the confidence and affection of the 
people was too strong to be shaken. The result was an over- 
whelming defeat of the Democratic candidate, while Mr. Lin- 



1864.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 281 

coin read in a popular majority' of more than 400,000 votes 
the approbation of his fellow-citizens of his conduct of the 
government and of the war for the Union ; and, on the eve of 
its close, could, in his second Inaugural Address, conclude his 
review of the mighty struggle in the familiar words : — 

"With malice towards none, with charity for all, with firm- 
ness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive 
to finish the work we are in, — to bind up the nation's wounds, 
to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his 
widow and his orphans ; to do all which may achieve and 
cherish a just and lasting peace among ourselves and with all 
nations." 

Meanwhile, the end was drawing nigh. Sherman had com- 
pleted his victorious march through the Carolinas and effected 
a junction with Scofield and Terry ; Sheridan had turned the 
flank of Lee, and Grant moved upon and took Rich- 

April 3. 

mond, which was occupied by colored troops. Lee 
sought to effect an escape, but was compelled to capitulate, 
with the remnant of his army, at Appomattox Court 
House. 

This really ended the war, and the glorious tidings spread 
joy over all the land ; the bells were rung, the cannon boomed, 
the flag waved in triumph, cities were illuminated, J03' was 
universal ; it filled every heart, but none more than Lincoln's, 
who had gone to Richmond, and returned safe to Washington, 
and, in the kindness of his heart, consented to gratify the 
people, by being present at a representation in Ford's Theatre. 
He sat surrounded by his family and friends in his own box. 
Suddenl}^ the report of a pistol was heard ; a man, waving the 
weapon and shouting, " Sic semper tyrannis," leaped on the 
stage and made his escape. He had shot, and shot 
mortally, Abraham Lincoln, the best and most loved 
of all presidents since Washington. 

The assassin, who, in the frenzy of political delusion, thought 
he was ridding the world of a tyrant, was AVilkcs Booth, one of 



282 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

a band of conspirators who had plotted to kill the President 
and all the leading merubers of the government. At the time 
there was a widespread belief that the foul deed had been in- 
stigated by the Confederate leaders, but fortunately the sus- 
picion was never proved. 

The intelligence, flashed over the country and under the ocean, 
that the President had been assassinated, that he was dying, that 
he was dead, seemed too incredible to be true. It sent a thrill 
of horror and agony through the nation. In a moment the voice 
of joy and thanksgiving was hushed in deep, unutterable sorrow. 
Then there rose a cry of lamentation and universal grief. 

The mourning for Lincoln was deep and sincere ; it drowned 
the strife of party, and drew words of sympath}-, not only from 
the nations of the earth, but from the States so lately in arms. 
His last journey had been to Richmond, where thousands of 
the liberated Africans crowded round his carriage, and made 
the welkin ring with their hosannas for the sight of their 
deliverer. "Glory to God!" "Bless de Lord!" they cried, 
in the exuberance of their delight. And they wept now, and 
mourned for him more than for a father. 

The nation felt that their father had been snatched away. 
The demonstration of grief ^W^s unexampled; at one hour on 
the day set apart for the funeral service at Washington similar 
services were held throughout the land ; his body was 
borne in solemn procession to Springfield, a distance 
of about 1,600 miles over the same route he had chosen when 
as president-elect he had come to Washington. 

Never had a king such a funeral, accompanied by such sin- 
cere and heartfelt mourning ; at last the procession reached its 
destination, and, as " Father Abraham " was laid to rest, his 
own beautiful prophecy was recalled and uttered, that the time 
would come when "the mystic chords of memory, which stretch 
from every battle-field and from every patriot's grave, shall 
yield a sweeter music when touched by the angels of our better 
nature." 



1864.] ABRAHAM LINCOLN. 283 

One of the most touching and true tributes to the memory of 
the martyr-president, as he was called at the time, came from 
the Legislative Body of France, whose minutes contain, among 
other expressions, these words : — 

' ' Called to the helm of . the ship of state in a crisis of im- 
perishable memory, Abraham Lincoln sustained himself at the 
height of his difficult task. Invincibly firm throughout the 
struggle, the wisdom of his speech and views seemed to mark 
him as destined speedily to conduct the children of his American 
mother-country to a salutary and lasting reconciliation. His 
last acts crowned the life of an honest man and of a great 
citizen." 

Add to this that his honesty lives in the historical sobriquet 
of "honest Abe," and the love which the people bore to him 
in the familiar and endearing epithets of "Uncle Abe" and 
"Father Abraham"; that his kindness was proverbial, his 
ability undoubted, his simplicity and modesty unaffected, that 
he shone as a man, as a citizen, and as a patriot ; and such a 
record as his assigns to him a place in history, and in the hearts 
of his countrymen, only second to that of Washington. 

The hope and the prophecy of Lincoln have been fulfilled. 
The Union is restored, the dark and terrible days of the frat- 
ricidal war belong to the distant past, and the flag waves in 
triumph over a united people, blessed with unexampled pros- 
perity. May it be perpetual. 

REFERENCES. 

The several Histories of the United States. Holland and Raymond, 
"■ Lincoln "; and for Documents, etc., " The Annual Cyclopaedia." 



284 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 



1822-1885] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 

Hiram Ulysses Grant, for that was his original name, was 
the son of Jesse R. Grant, a well-to-do tanner, who, at the time 
APBIL27, of his son's birth, lived at Point Pleasant, Clermont 
1 822 County, Ohio, but removed a year later to Georgetown, 
Brown County, in the same State. In the latter place the future 
general and president of the United States spent his youth, 
-, until, at the aare of 17, he went to West Point. His 
schooling there was of a limited character, for it did 
not extend beyond the three R's, as they are sometimes 
called. While going to school, where he acquired, besides the 
branches just named, a familiarity with the suasions of birch 
switches, he worked, although he did not like to work, on the 
farm, and " did as much of it," to use his own words, while 
young, "as grown men can, be hired to do in these days." 
This fact, and his repeated assurance that he could not 
remember to have " been punished at home, either by scolding 
or by the rod," seem to disprove the anecdote that his mother, 
en account of his remissness at work, was wont to call him 
"Useless" instead of Ulysses. Upon his appointment to West 
Point his name was wrongly registered " Ulysses S.," and find- 
ing that red-tape interfered with the correction, he submitted to 
the involuntary change as his "manifest destiny" and signed 
it "Ulysses Simpson," the latter being his mother's family 
name. The initials " U. S.," which he afterwards used, at 
subsequent stages of his life, gave rise to the familiar "Uncle 
Sam," "United States," and "Unconditional Surrender" Grant. 

-1 His record at West Point was fair but not brilliant, 

1 843 

and he left the Academy as brevet second lieutenant 



1 



1822-1885.] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 285 

in the Fourth Infantry. While stationed at Jefferson Barracks 
he became engaged to Miss Julia Dent, whom he married four 
3^ears later. At that time Grant intended to choose the scho- 
lastic profession, and applied for the position of assistant-pro- 
fessor of Mathematics at West Point, but the outbreak of the 
Mexican War compelled him to change his purpose. He served 
with great distinction, was promoted first lieutenant, in conse- 
quence of the death of his senior, lieutenant Sidney sept. i4, 
Smith, who was mortally wounded on entering the City 1847 
of Mexico. Upon the close of the war, he married, aug. 22, 
spent two years in garrison at Sackett's Harbor and 1848 
Detroit, was ordered to the Pacific coast, where he n 
was promoted captain, and resigned. 

Returned to civil life, he tried his hand at farming, but a 
severe attack of fever and ague induced him to exchange 
agricultural pursuits for the conduct of a not very prosperous 
real-estate agency at St. Louis, and that again for a r- 
clerkship in his father's store at Galena, Illinois. 

When, in response to Mr. Lincoln's call for 75,000 men, the 
citizens of Galena raised a company, Grant left the leather 
store, drilled the men, and took them to Springfield to be mus- 
tered into the service of the United States. Governor Yates 
of Illinois invited Grant to fill a nondescript position in the 
adjutant-general's office, where his army experience would be 
of great service. He became mustering-officer of the State 
troops, and was successively appointed colonel of the 2 1st regi- 
ment of infantry, and brigadier-general. His first act was the 
timely seizure of Paducah, at the mouth of the Tennessee, an 
important position, which, in the hands of the enemy, who was 
preparing to occupy it, might have been very injurious to the 
Federals. The prompt and circumspect proceedings of Grant 
revealed his latent powers. In the battle of Belmont, Nov. 7, 
where the raw and undisciplined volunteers had their I86I 
first lesson in war, the personal prowess of Grant averted a 
defeat. 



286 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

The Confederates held a strong line of defence from Columbus, 
on the Mississippi, to Cumberland Gap. The breaking of that 
line was a military necessity, and its execution was confided to 
Grant, who undertook to capture Fort Henry on the Tennessee, 
which would compel the evacuation of Columbus, and Fort 
Donelson, on the Cumberland, which would open the way to 
Nashville. 

The former place was attacked by gunboats and readil}^ 
taken, but the troops did not come up in time to capture the 
garrison, which Tilghman, the Confederate commander, had 
sent to Donelson before the attack. Tilghman, his staff, and 
Feb. 6, tlic armament of the fort fell into the hands of Grant, 
1862 Yfh.o ordered the pursuit on land, while the gunboats, 
commanded by commodore Foote, were directed to proceed 
down the Tennessee, and ascend the Cumberland for a com- 
bined attack on Fort Donelson. 

The post was well chosen, strongly fortified, and garrisoned 
with 21,000 men. Floyd, the quondam Secretary of War under 
Mr. Buchanan, who for more than a year had abused his high 
oflflce in furnishing the South the means of armed resistance, 
was in command ; general Pillow, an unskilful but vain officer, 
his second, and general Buckher, the only able officer, third in 
rank. 

Grant's plan was to hold the enemy within his lines by the 
investing army, while the gunboats should attack the water 
batteries. The gunboats opened a vigorous fire on the fort, 
which returned it with skill and deadly effect, disabled the fleet, 
and even wounded the flag-officer. The enemy, emboldened 
by his success with the fleet, on the next da}^ took the offensive, 
but was driven back with great loss, and that night the Federal 
division, under general Smith, bivouacked within the Confed- 
erate lines. 

The fate of Donelson was now sealed ; - during the night 
Floyd and Pillow and a portion of the garrison effected their 
escape, and at dayl^reak, just before Grant ordered the 



1862.] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 287 

final assault, Buckncr, now left in sole command, proposed an 
armistice of several hours to arrange terms of capitulation. 
Grant replied, " No terms but an unconditional and immediate 
surrender can be accepted. I propose to move immediately 
upon your works." Buckuer accepted what he called 
"the ungenerous and unchivalrous terms," and feb. i6, 
capitulated with about 15,000 men. These splendid 1862 
achievements led to the evacuation of Columbus, Bowling 
Green, and Nashville. 

The superior strategy of Grant in the battles of Shiloh, luka, 
and Corinth met hardly any official recognition, but rivetted 
the attention of the whole countr}-, and of military critics in 
Europe on the brilliant series of operations which culminated in 
the capture of Vicksburg. The objects to be gained were the 
unobstructed navigation of the Mississippi, and the sundering 
of the Confederacy. 

The approaches to that natural stronghold, rendered nearly 
impregnable b}' formidable works of enormous extent, presented 
difficulties and obstacles of the most forbidding character to an 
ordinary commander, but could not deter Grant from his pur- 
pose, at any cost, and under all circumstances, to recover this 
Gibraltar of the Mississippi to the Union. 

After weeks of unavailing effort to take the place from the 
north. Grant concluded to attempt it from the south ; for this 
purpose a large body of troops was sent down the western 
side of the river, while the gunboats, convoying a flotilla of 
steamers and barges, loaded with rations and forage, and 
destined to carr}' the army across, "ran the batteries" which 
commanded the river for a distance of over 15 miles. 

In order to capture Grand Gulf, the army was taken across 
the river at Bruinsburg, met the enemj', who had come out to 
prevent that capture, at Port Gibson, and defeated ^^ , 

* ^ ' May 1. 

him. That victory secured to Grant not only Port 
Gibson, but Grand Gulf. Advised that Joseph E. Johnston 
was hastening to Pemberton's assistance, Grant resolved to 



288 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

place his army between them, " drive eastward the weaker one, 
attack and beat Gregg . . . and seize Jackson," 50 miles east 
of Vicksburg, at the junction of the railroads by which that 
stronghold was supplied, and meanwhile push Pemberton into 
Vicksburg, where completely "isolated from the would-be 
Confederacy," he meant to capture the whole of his army. 

This daring and extensive programme was triumphantly 
accomplished in 20 days, during which the two hostile armies 
had been beaten in detail in five battles with great loss, and 
the victorious general then ordered a general attack on the 
defences of Vicksburg. 

The assault was made, but did not succeed, and the regular 
siege began. A double line of defence had to be constructed, 
one 15 miles long facing Vicksburg, and another facing in the 
opposite direction to check the approach of Johnston, who was 
hastening to the relief of Pemberton. 

After a month's incessant work with the pick and spade, 

and after a sap had been run to the enemy's parapet, order 

was given to spring the mine. It was exploded 

June ^u* 

with the effect that the top of the hill was blown off, 
and a crater formed. The front blown off with everything, and 
everybody on it, was lifted into the air to an altitude of about 
80 feet. Incredible as it seems, general Grant mentions that a 
colored man who had been under ground at work, landed on the 
Union side, "not much hurt, but terribly frightened. Some 
one asked him how high he had gone up. ' Dun no, massa, but 
t'ink 'bout free mile,' was his reply." 

The breach was kept open ; another mine was exploded, which 
destroyed an entire redan ; the work of mining continued with 
unabated vigor, and the Union approaches had reached the 
enemy's ditch at many points. 

Nothing could save the city, and Pemberton, despairing of 
outside relief, and half-starved, sued for terms of capitulation. 
He obtained from the generosity of the humane commander, 
and not "from the vanity of our foes," as Pemberton put it, 



1862-1863.] ULYSSES S. GRANT, 289 

honorable and excellent terms, and on the morning of July 4th, 
the enem}^, numbering 31,600 men, marched out from Vicks- 
burg, stacked their arms, and returned without them, prisoners 
of war until paroled. The victory was complete, and the news 
of that 4th of July elated the nation with grateful joy. 

The President, who, when urged by politicians to remove 
Grant, rid himself of the pressure with the quaint words : 
" I rather like the man. I think we'll try him a little longer," 
had good cause for rejoicing in his excellent judgment ; he too 
had thought Grant was blundering, but when he received this 
crowning proof of his generalship, he wrote, "I now wish to 
make a personal acknowledgment that you were right, and I 
was wrong." 

Even Halleck, so slow and loth to do justice to Grant, 
wrote this tribute : " In boldness of plan, rapidity of execution, 
and brilliancy of routes, these operations will compare most 
favorably with those of Napoleon about Ulm. You and 3'our 
army have well deserved the gratitude of your country, and it 
will be the boast of your children that their fathers were of the 
heroic army which reopened the Mississippi River." 

The immediate official recognition of Grant was his advance 
to the grade of major-general in the regular army. 

Placed in command of the newly created military division of 
the Mississippi, Grant earned new laurels in the Chattanooga 
campaign, and concluded a series of splendid engagements in 
the magnificent victory over the Confederates, already worsted 
by Thomas at Orchard Knob, and by Hooker chased "in the 
battle above the clouds " from Lookout Mountain, in the grand 
charge of Missionary Ridge. 

The battle of Chattanooga, carried out according to the pro- 
gramme, minutely planned and directed by Grant, is perhaps 
the proudest monument of his military genius, which dislodged 
the enemy from his chosen ground, and sent him utterly routed, 
and flying in hot haste towards Virginia. This skill which 
already had caused the mighty father of waters to roll in all its 



290 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

mighty length "unvexed" to the sea, now opened at Chatta- 
nooga the gate to the heart of the Confederac}- . 

By this time the undoubted abiUty of Grant marked him as 
the person best fitted to assume the control and direct the 
movements of all the armies of the United States. The grade 
March 3, of lieutenant-general was revived and conferred upon 
1864 Grant, who, honored with the unbounded confidence of 
the Executive, of Congress, and the whole Nation, accepted the 
trust, saying to the President : — 

' ' I accept the commission with gratitude for the high honor 
conferred. With the aid of the noble armies -that have fought 
on so many fields for our common country, it will be my earnest 
endeavor not to disappoint your expectations. I feel the full 
weight of the responsibilities now devolving upon me, and I 
know that if they are met, it will be due to those armies, and 
above all, to the favor of that Providence which leads both 
nations and men." 

Then he laid his plans for the final overthrow of the tottering 
Confederac}'. The writer recalls an illustration of that plan, 
communicated to him at the time b}' a distinguished senator. 
General Grant, having been importuned for a disclosure of his 
purposes, made no oral repl^S but raising his arm presented 
his right hand with the five fingers stretched out, then bending 
the fingers, slowly brought them together at one point. 

That was his plan ; he proposed to drive all the insurgent 
armies towards one centre, encircle it with the impenetrable iron 
strength of the Federal hosts, and compel submission. 

There were then virtually but two Confederate armies, that 
of Johnston in the West, and Lee's in Virginia ; to drive in, 
capture, or annihilate the former was the task committed to 
Sherman, and to mete out the same fate to the latter was the 
work assumed by Grant. Sherman pushed Johnston into the 
intrenchments of Atlanta, and when that general was displaced 
by Hood, repulsed the latter, compelled him to evacuate Atlanta, 
and secured Georgia. Hood was snared into Tennessee, where 



J884.J ULYSSES S. GRANT. 291 

at the battle of Nashville, his army was destroyed by general 
Thomas. Sherman, assured that Hood would be cared for in 
Tennessee, set fire to Atlanta and swept with his army of 
60,000 men through the heart of the Confederacy, to Savannah, 
300 miles away. 

Meanwhile, Grant had fought his way, with dreadful loss of 
life, into Virginia, and, after sundry ineffectual efforts to cap- 
ture Richmond, had gradually encompassed that city with 
armies, ready to move at the appointed time, which was de- 
layed until the spring of the ensuing year, when the victorious 
legions of Sherman had reached Goldsboro'. 

Then a general order was issued, and the operations were 
so successful, that within four days the city of Richmond was 
taken, and Lee, hotly pursued by Grant, and stayed in his 
progress by Sheridan, was forced to surrender his army, which 
had been reduced by constant losses to 8,000 men. 

This ended the war. The terms he accorded to Lee were 
generous and humane, alike honorable to his head and heart. 
The Confederates were put on their parole, the officers permitted 
to retain their side-arms, private baggage, and horses, and all 
officers and men promised " not to be disturbed by United 
States authority so long as the}" observe their parole and the 
laws in force where they may reside." After the papers had 
been signed, Lee said he had forgotten to mention that many 
of the cavalr}" and artillery horses were the propert}' of the 
men in charge of them. Whereupon Grant replied: "I will 
instruct my paroling officers that all the enlisted men of your 
cavalry and artillery who own horses are to retain them, just as 
the officers do theirs. They will need them for their spring 
ploughing and other farm work." 

It is said that after the war general Grant heard that Mr. 
Stanton had issued writs for the arrest of general Lee and 
other Southern leaders, and went to ask liim if he had been 
correctly informed. Mr. Stanton replied lio had. General 
Grant protested against the action, saying, " Wlien general Lee 



292 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

surrendered to me at Appomatox Court House, I gave him my 
word of honor that neither he nor any of his followers would 
be disturbed so long as they obeyed their parole of honor. I 
have learned nothing to cause me to believe that any of m.y late 
adversaries have broken their promises, and have come here to 
make you aware of the fact, and would also suggest that those 
orders be cancelled." The secretary resented the interference, 
and not without angry haughtiness replied: "General Grant, 
are you aware whom 3^ou are talking to? I am the secretary of 
war." 

" And I," rejoined Grant, " am general Grant. Issue those 
orders at 3'our peril." He left the secretary, and the secretary 
did not issue his orders. 

Grant was very friendly to the South, and had his advice 
been taken by the Southern leaders, their rehabilitation would 
have taken place much sooner. His magnanimit}' in this par- 
ticular respect appears even in his official report, where, after 
a eulogium on the grand achievements of the several armies 
of the Union, he writes : — 

" All have a proud record, and all sections can well congrat- 
ulate themselves and each other for having done their full share 
in restoring the supremacy x)t- law over every foot of territory 
belonging to the United States. Let them hope for perpetual 
peace and harmony with that enemy whose manhood, however 
mistaken the cause, drew forth such herculean deeds of valor." 

The cruel assassination of the beloved and tender-hearted 
president Lincoln was an awful shock to general Grant, who 
received the terrible news at Philadelphia. He had been pres- 
ent at the Cabinet meeting held in the morning of that sad 
day, and refused the president's invitation to accompany him to 
the theatre in the evening, where the people, and doubtless Xho, 
assassins, expected him. His departure spoiled their plan, and 
probably saved his life, for it was remembered that the infa- 
mous Booth galloped past his carriage and looked in at the 
window. 



1869-1877.] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 293 

He returned instantly to Washington, and gave his hearty 
support to president Johnson, doubtless to the amazement of 
despotic critics abroad, to whom the spectacle of a victorious 
and popular general, commanding a million of men, submitting 
to constitutional order and law, must have been a new lesson 
in history. 

In recognition of the eminent services rendered by Grant and 
Sherman, Congress conferred upon the former the grade of 
General of the Army of the United States, a position which had 
never been held by an American officer except Washington ; 
and upon the latter the grade of Lieutenant-general. Pending 
president Johnson's difficulties with Mr. Stanton, general Grant, 
much against his inclination, held the office of Secretary of War 
ad interim for the space of five months. 

Nominated by the Republican party for president, general 

Grant was elected to that hiojh office, and served r 

1869"~I877 
two terms. The leading events of his adminis- 
tration were : the opening of the Pacific Railroad ; the adoption 
of the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution, which guaran- 
tees to all citizens the right of suffrage, irrespective of" race, 
color, or previous condition of servitude"; the "Treaty of 
Washington/' and the settlement by an international board of 
arbitrators of the "Alabama Claims," as well as the rectifica- 
tion of the north-western boundai-y between the United States 
and British America by the decision of the emperor of Ger- 
many, the chosen arbitrator, and the Apology by Spain for the 
insult ofi'ered the flag of the United States in the treatment of 
the Virginius. 

During his second term there were outbreaks of the Modoc 
and Sioux Indians, which were speedily checked ; the recon- 
struction of the South, temporarily interrupted by the Louisiana 
complication, made satisfactory progress ; the president vetoed 
the bill for the increase of the national currency, and opened 
the Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia. His first term of 
office was marked by unexampled prosperity of tlie country. 



294 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

and his second by a reaction, which led to a financial crisis, 
caused by luxurious extravagance, over-production, and ex- 
cessive speculation. 

A calm and unprejudiced review of the eight years which 
general Grant spent at the White House compels the verdict 
that he was an able and patriotic ruler, whose firmness and 
high sense of duty and honor restored peace and honor at home 
and made the United States respected and honored abroad. 

The extent and degree to which his military and civil acts 
had accomplished the latter found the most striking expres- 
sion in the reception accorded to general Grant on his tour 
round the world. 

Honors and distinctions were showered upon him by all 
classes and conditions of men, from the occupants of the proud- 
est thrones to the hardy sons of toil. The prince of Wales 
welcomed him ; queen Victoria received him and Mrs. Grant as 
her guests at Windsor Castle ; the cities of London, Edinburgh, 
and Glasgow tendered to him their freedom ; at Cairo, he was 
royally entertained by the khedive ; at Constantinople, the sul- 
tan gave him a warm reception ; at Rome, pope Leo XHI. and 
king Humbert extended to him kindly greetings; at Berlin, 
where the illness of the kiBg, whose life had been attempted, 
prevented a personal interview, he had a most cordial meet- 
ing with Bismarck ; at St. Petersburg, Vienna, and Madrid, 
he was received by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria, and 
Spain. 

Leaving Europe, the colonial representatives of Great Britain, 
English residents, and the native population, as well as Indian 
princes, united in honoring the American general and his friends. 
The king of Siam placed a palace at his disposal; at Canton, 
the Chinese viceroy had prepared the people for the advent of 
" the king of America " ; and at Pekin, the prince Kung, then 
only seven years old, gave him imperial welcome. At Tokio, 
the mikado received general Grant with singular warmth, who, 
honored more than any other American before him, sailed home 



1869-1877.] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 295 

to meet an enthusiastic welcome, which was an uninterrupted 
ovation from San Francisco to Philadelphia. At the banquet 
tendered him at Chicago b}^ the Army ol' the Tennessee, he 
spoke of his travels, and also of the Soutli. 

Of the former he said: '' Everywhere, from England to 
Japan, from Russia to Spain and Portugal, we are understood, 
our resources highly appreciated, and the skill, energy, and in- 
telligence of the citizens recognized. My receptions have been 
your receptions. They have been everywhere kind, and an 
acknowledgment that the United States is a nation, a strong, 
independent, and fi-ee nation, composed of strong, brave, and 
intelligent people, capable of judging of their rights, and ready 
to maintain them at all hazards." 

Adverting to the war, and the purport of the society of sol- 
diers he was addressing, continued: " They [the meetings] do 
not serve to keep up sectional feeling or bitterness towards our 
late foe, but they do keep up the feeling that we are a nation, 
and that it must be preserved one and indivisible. We feel 
and maintain that those who fought, and fought bravely, on 
the opposite side from us have equal claim with ourselves in all 
the blessings of our great and common country. . . . We . . . 
would rejoice to see them become powerful rivals in the devel- 
opment of our great resources, in the acquisition of all that 
should be desirable in this life, and in patriotism and in love of 
country." 

General Grant's tour through the South, made in 1880, did 
much good in the promotion of cordiality, and the burial of 
forgotten or superannuated feuds, and his visit to Cuba and 
Mexico was advantageous to the commercial interests of the 
country. Upon his return, general Grant made the house in 
New York City, which friends had bought and presented to his 
wife, his permanent home. 

Owing to the dishonesty of the trusted but unworthy partner 
of his sons, the last years of his life were clouded by sorrow, 
pecuniary losses, and embarrassment. Friends came to his aid, 



296 MODERN HISTORY. [A.D. 

Dotably the late Mr. W. H. Vanderbilt, who had loaned to hun 
the sum of $150,000, and was willing to cancel the obligation 
but for the general's opposition, who insisted that his personal 
property, including the presents lie had received on his torn- 
round the world, should be applied to the payment of the debt. 
The formality of a levy was gone through with, and the prop- 
erty thus acquired Mr. Vanderbilt proposed to present to Mrs. 
Grant. But the general would not consent to the arrangement, 
and it was finally agreed that the property in question should 
remain in Mrs. Grant's possession during his life, and after his 
death pass, as a gift to the nation, to the custody of the Smith- 
sonian Institute at Washington. 

It is pleasing to record that senator Logan's bill, placing 
Jan. 11, general Grant on the retired list, with the rank and 
^881 pay of a general of the army, which failed to pass at 
the time of its introduction, became law not long before his 
death. 

A long and painful disease baffled the physicians' skill, which 
might abate the violence of his sufferings, and prolong his 
slender hold on life, but could not eradicate the incurable evil 
or stay the hand of death. During that sickness he wrote and 
completed at Mount McGregor the " Personal Memoirs," from 
whose sale he hoped, and hoped not in vain, for returns which 
would secure to his famil}^ a competence. Throughout his long 
sickness, the heart of the whole country went out to the loved 
sufferer, and watched, as it were, at his bedside. This sympa- 
thy was unspeakably precious to him. ' ' It has been an inestima- 
july2, ble blessing to me," he wrote to Dr. Douglass three 
1885 weeks before his death, "to hear the kind expressions 
toward me in person from all parts of our country, from people 
of all nationalities, of all religions and of no religion, of Con- 
federate and of National troops alike. . . . They have brought 
joy to my heart, if they have not effected a cure." 

A message to his wife, found on his person after 
July 9. ^ ' ^ 

death, contained this touching charge: "Look after 



1881-1885.] ULYSSES S. GRANT. 297 

our dear children, and direct them in the paths of rectitude. 
It would distress me far more to think that one of them could 
depart from an honorable, upright, and virtuous life, than it 
would to know they were prostrated on a bed of sickness from 
which they were never to arise alive." 

Universally beloved and loving, free from pain, he died at 
Mount McGregor on the morning of July 23. 

The sad but expected intelligence was a sorrow to every 
heart. The mourning was universal ; messages of condolence 
came in almost countless number from every part of the land, 
and from man}^ sovereigns in Europe and Asia. His body was 
embalmed, and laj^ in state at the City Hall in New York for 
three days. 

His funeral was maarnificent ; the funeral car, drawn 

^ Aug. 8. 

by 24 black horses, each led by a negro, received 
the casket ; among the 1 2 pall-bearers were generals Sherman 
and Joe Johnston, generals Sheridan and Buckner ; among the 
mourners were president Cleveland and ex-presidents Hayes 
and Arthur ; the funeral procession was the most imposing 
ever seen in America, and consisted of three grand divisions, 
a military escort, a veteran cortege, and a civic division, 
numbering about 50,000 men in line, which moved through the 
densely crowded streets of the great city, draped in mourning, 
past a multitude of deeply affected spectators, estimated at not 
less than half a million, to the chosen resting-place in Riverside 
Park. 

At the tomb, surrounded by the dignitaries of the nation, 
there was the pomp and circumstance of war in military salutes 
and martial music, but there was also the sweeter sight of peace 
in the reunion of those who in b3'-gone years had met in deadly 
conflict, and were now mingling their tears over the brave and 
patriotic soldier whom they laid to rest. 

A bugler stepped to the side of the i)urplc casket, and rang 
out the notes of "Taps." A brief service followed, and at its 
close the bugler, with tearful eyes and tremulous breath, blew 



298 MODERN HISTORY. 

the soft, sad notes of the " Rest" ; a last look at the casket, 
on which the grandchildren of the departed threw their flowers ; 
a gun from the Alliaiice was fired ; then the casket was raised 
and carried into the tomb, and enclosed in the steel casing. 

Thus they buried Grant at Riverside ; but throughout the 
whole country, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in and 
from Canada to the Gulf, and even in Westminster Abbey, 
memorial services were held, and glowing tributes paid to the 
great and good man, who, under God, saved his country, and, 
though a warrior, loved peace ; and who, could he have witnessed 
his own funeral, would have reiterated the touching words he 
wrote to Buckner, when his voice failed him to utter them : 
" We may now well look forward to a perpetual peace at home, 
and a national strength that will screen us against any foreign 
complication. I believe myself that the war was worth all it 
cost us, fearful as that was." 

REFERENCES. 

U. S. Grant, " Personal Memoirs " ; Badeau, " Military History of 
General Grant " ; Chesney, " Military Biographies " ; Brown, " Life 
of Ulysses Simpson Grant." _^ 

HISTORICAL SURVEY. 

A.D. 1483. Nov. 10, birth of Martin Luther. 

1517. Luther posts the 95 theses upon the church door at Wit- 

tenberg. 

1518. Cardinal Cajetan summons Lutlier to appear before the 

Diet of Augsburg. 

1520. Luther burns the pope's bull, etc., at Wittenberg. 

1521. The Diet at Worms. Luther put to the ban of the em- 

pire. The Wartbiu^g. 

1522. Luther returns to Wittenberg. 
1525. Luther marries Katharina de Bora. 

1530. The Augsburg Confession. 

1531. League of the Protestant princes at Smalcald. 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 299 

A.D. 1533. Birth of queen Elizabeth, Sept. 7. 

1545. The Council of Trent meets, Dec. 13. ' 

1546. Death of Luther, Feb. 18. 
1558. Elizabeth, queen of England. 

1563. The 39 Articles authorized by Convocation. 

1587. Mary, queen of Scots, beheaded at Fotheringay Castle, 

Feb. 8. 
Drake destroys a Spanish squadron at Cadiz. 

1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 
1596. Capture of Cadiz. 

1599. Essex in disgrace. 

1601. Essex is beheaded, Feb. 25. 

1603. Death of queen Elizabeth, March 24. 

1672. Birth of Peter the Great, June 9. 

1682. Ivan and Peter, jointly czars of Russia, 1682-1689. 

Sophia, regent. 

1689. Peter, sole czar of Russia, cbL 17. 

1696. Capture of Azof. 

1697. The czar of Russia travels incognito through Germany, 

Holland, England, etc. 

1698. Insurrection and defeat of the Strelitz guards. 

1699. Alliance of Russia, Denmark, and Poland against Sweden. 

1700. The victory of Narva, Nov. 30. 

1703, Foundation of St. Petersburg and Cronstadt. 

1706. Birth of Benjamin Franklin. 

1709. Charles XII. defeated at Pultowa. 

1711. The Russians defeated and surrounded by the Turks on 

the Pruth. 

1712. Birth of Frederic the Great. 

1718. Charles XII. is killed at the siege of Frederickshal, 

Nov. 30. 
1721. Peace of Xystadt, between Sweden and Russia. 
1725. Death of Peter the Great, Jan. 28. 
1732. Birth of George Washington. 

1740. Frederic II., king of Prussia, May 31. lie invades Silesia. 

1741. Frederic defeats the Austrians at JMolwitz, April 10. 
Maria Theresa crowned at Presburg, June 14. 

1742. The elector of Bavaria chosen emperor as Charles VII. 
Peace of Breslau, between Austria and Prussia. 



300 MODERN HISTORY. 

A.D. 1744. Beginning of King George's War. 
Frederic II. captures Prague. 
1745. Peace of Dresden, between Austria, Saxony, Poland, and 

Prussia. 
1748. General Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Oct. 7. 

1753. Washington sent to St. Pierre, Oct. 31. 

1754. Battle of Great Meadows. 

1755. Defeat of Braddock. 

1756. The Seven Years' War. Alliance of England with Prus- 

sia, against Austria and France. 

Montcalm captures Fort Oswego, Aug. 14. 

Victories of Frederic II. at Lowositz and at Pirna. Seiz- 
ure of Saxon archives. 

1757. Montcalm takes Fort William Henry, Aug. 9. 
Frederic victorious at Prague, May 6 ; defeated at Kolin, 

June 18 ; the Swedes and Russians, allied with the Aus- 
trians, invade Prussia. The Russians capture Memel, 
and win the battle of Gross Jagerndorf , Aug. 30. Fred- 
eric defeats the French at Rossbach, Nov. 5, the Aus- 
trians at Leuthen, Dec. 5, and regains Silesia. 

1758. Ferdinand of Brunswick defeats the French at Crefeld, 

June 23. 
Abercrombie repulsed by the French at Ticonderoga, 

July 8. --^^-^ 

Amherst and Wolfe take Louisburg, July 27. 
Forbes captures Fort Duquesne, Nov. 25. 
Frederic II. defeats the Russians at Zorndorf, Aug. 25, 

but is defeated by Daun at Hochkirchen, Oct. 14. 

1759. Battle on the Plains of Abraham, Sept. 13. Capture of 

Quebec, Sept. 18. 
The Prussians defeated at Ziillichau, July 23, at Kunners- 
dorf, Aug. 12, and at Maxen, Nov. 20. 

1760. Frederic defeated by Laudon at Landshut, June 23 ; de- 

feats him at Liegnitz, Aug. 15. The Austrians and Rus- 
sians capture Berlin, Oct. 9. Frederic defeats Daun at 
Torgau, Nov. 3, and subdues Saxony, except Dresden. 
Montreal surrendered to the English, Sept. 18. 

1761. Frederic, now on the defensive, loses Schweidnitz and 

Colberg. 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 301 

A.D. 1762. Frederic defeats Daun at Burkersdorf, July 21, and re- 
takes Schweidnitz, Oct. 9. 
1763. Peace of Paris, between Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
Feb. 10. 
Peace of Hubertusburg, between Austria and Prussia, 
Feb. 15. 

1765. The Stamp Act passed, March 22. 

1766. The Stamp Act repealed. 

1767. Tax imposed on tea, etc., June 29. 

1769. Birth of Arthur AVellesley (lord Wellington), ]\Iay 1. 
Birth of Xapoleon Bonaparte, Aug. 15, 

1774. First Continental Congress at Philadelphia, Sept. 5. 

1775. Battle of Lexington, April 19. 

Washington elected commander-in-chief, June 15; in com- 
mand, July 2. 
Battle of Bunker Hill, June 17. 

1776. Boston evacuated, March 17. 
Declaration of Independence, July 4. 

1777. Surrender of Burgoyne, Oct. 17. 

1778. American independence acknowledged by France. Alli- 

ance between France and the United States concluded 
by Franklin, Feb. 6. 

1779. Capture of Stony Point by "Mad Anthony," July 15. 
Paul Jones' victory, Sept. 23. 

1780. Battle of Camden, Aug. 16. Execution of Andre, Oct. 2. 

1781. Greene's retreat, January and February. 
Surrender of Cornwallis, October 19. 

1783. Treaty of Peace between England, and France, Spain, and 

the United States. Preliminaries signed, Jan. 20 ; de- 
finitive signature at Versailles, Sept. 3. 

1784. The Treaty of Peace ratified by Congress, Jan. 14; by 

the king of England, April 9. 

1786. Death of Frederic the Great, Aug. 17, cct. 75. 

1787. The Constitution of the United States adopted, Sept. 17. 

1788. The Constitution adopted by nine States. 

1789. George Washington inaugurated first President, April 30. 

1790. Death of Benjamin Franklin, April 17, ccl. 85. 

1793. Louis XVI. guillotined, Jan. 21. First Coalition of all 
Europe, except Sweden, Denmark, and Turkey, against 
France. 



302 MODERN HISTORY, 

A.D. 1795. Revolt of the Parisian Sections suppressed by Napoleon, 
Oct. 5. 

1796. Napoleon Bonaparte's first campaign in Italy. 

1797. John Adams inaugurated, March 4. 

Napoleon's Austrian Campaign. Peace of Campo For- 
mio, between Austria and France, Oct. 17. 

1798. Second Coalition against France. Napoleon in Egypt. 

1799. Napoleon's campaign in Egypt and Syria. Return to 

France, Oct. 9. Elected consul for 10 years. 
Death of George Washington, Dec. 14, cet. 67. 

1800. Brilliant campaign of Napoleon in Italy. Great St. Ber- 

nard. Marengo, June 14. 

1802. Napoleon, president of the Italian Republic, January; 

consul for life, August. 

1803. Louisiana purchased from France, April 30. 

1804. Napoleon I. proclaimed emperor of the French, May 18. 

Coronation at Notre Dame. 

1805. Third Coalition. Nelson's victory off Trafalgar, Oct. 21. 
Napoleon defeats Mack. Capitulation of Ulm, Oct. 17. 

Capture of Vienna. Grand victoryat Austerlitz, Dec. 2. 
Peace of Presburg, Dec. 27. 

1806. Fourth Coalition. Establishment of Napoleon's federa- 

tive system. 
French victories ajt^ena and Auersfadt. Prohibition of 

all commerce and intercourse with British subjects, 

Nov. 21. 
Dissolution of the German empire. Francis II. assumes 

the title of Francis L, emperor of Austria, Aug. 6. 

1807. French victory at Eylau and Friedland. Peace of Tilsit, 

between France, Russia, and Prussia, July 7. 

1808. Napoleon in Spain, November and December. 

1809. Fifth Coalition. AVellington's victory at Talavera, July 28. 
Napoleon in Austria, Peace of Vienna, with Austria, 

Oct. 11. Divorce of the empress Josephine, Dec. 16. 

1810. Napoleon marries Maria Louisa of Austria, April 2. 

1812. Wellington victorious in Spain. Napoleon invades Rus- 

sia. Burning of Moscow. Passage of the Beresina. 

1813. Sixth Coalition against France. Total defeat of Napoleon 

at Leipzig, Oct. 16, 18, 19. 



HISTORICAL SURVEY. 303 

A.D. 1814. The Allies in Paris, March 31. Nai3oleon abdicates, 
April 11 ; lands at Elba, May 14. 

1815. Napoleon returns from Elba to Paris, March 20. The 
Hundred Daj's. Bliicher and Wellington victorious at 
Waterloo, June 18. Second abdication of Napoleon, 
June 22. He is banished to St. Helena, and lands 
there, Oct. 17. 

1821. Death of Napoleon at St. Helena, May 4, cet. 52. 

1857. James Buchanan inaugurated, March 4. 

1860. Abraham Lincoln elected president; secession of South 

Carolina, Dec. 20. 

1861. Formation of the Southern Confederacy, Feb. 4. 
Abraham Lincoln inaugurated, March 4. 

Fort Sumter bombarded, April 12, 13. Fu'st call for 
troops, April 15. The Confederates seize Harper's 
Ferry, April 18, and the Navy Yard at Norfolk, April 20. 

Battles of Bull Run, July 21; Ball's Bluff, Oct. 21; Port 
Royal, S.C, taken, Nov. 7. Battle of Belmont, Mo., 
Nov. 7. 

1862. Capture .of Forts Flenry, Feb. 6, and Donelson, Feb. 16. 

Battle of Shiloh, April 6, 7. 
Capture of New Orleans, April 25 ; of Fort Pulaski, 

April 11 ; surrender of Memphis, June 6. 
Lee invades Maryland, Sept. 5 ; and is defeated at South 

INIountain, Sept. 14, and at Antietam, Sept. 17. 
Battles of luka. Miss., Sept. 19 ; Corinth, Oct. 4 ; Perry ville, 

Ky., Oct. 8. 
Slavery abolished in the District of Columbia, April \. 

President Lincoln's First Emancipation Proclamation, 

Sept. 22. 

1863. President Lincoln's Second Emancipation Proclamation, 

Jan. 1. 

General Grant's campaign before Yicksburg, May 1-17. 

Battles of Chancellorsville, May 2, 3; battle of Gettys- 
burg, July 1-3. 

Surrender of Vicksburg, July 4. Battles of Chickamauga, 
Sept. 19, 20, and of Chattanooga, Nov. 24, 25. 

1864. General Grant made lieutenant-general, Marcli 3. Battles 

before Richmond, May and June. 



304 MODERN HISTORY. 

A.D. 1864. Naval fight between the Alabama and the Kearsarge oE 
Cherbourg, June 20; the Alabama sunk. 

Battles before Atlanta, July 20, 22, 28, Farragut in Mo- 
bile Bay, Aug. 5. Atlanta taken, Sept. 2 ; Union vic- 
tory at Nashville, Dec. 16. March of Sherman across 
Georgia, and capture of Savannah, Dec. 21. 

President Lincoln re-elected, November. 
1865. March of Sherman from Savannah to Goldsboro', from 
January to March. 

Second inauguration of president Lincoln, March 4. 

Capture of Petersburg and Richmond, April 2, 3. 

Lee surrenders to Grant, April 9. 

Assassination of president Lincoln, April 14. 

Andrew Johnson, president, April 15. 

Capture of Jefferson Davis, May 11. 

Slavery constitutionally abolished, in virtue of the 13th 
Amendment, Dec. 18. 

1867. The Freedman's Bureau Bill (July 16, 1866), the Civil 

Eights Bill, and the Tenure of Office Bill, passed over 
the president's veto, March 2. 

1868. Impeachment (Feb. 24), and acquittal of president John- 

son, May 26. 
Adoption of the 14th Amendment to the Constitution, 
July 28. ^ , 

1869. Ulysses S. Grant inaugurated, March 4. 

1870. Adoption of the 15th Amendment to the Constitution, 

March 30. 

1871. Conclusion of the Treaty of Washington, May 6. 
1873. Second inauguration of president Grant. 

1876. Centennial Exhibition at Philadelphia opened. May 10. 
1885. Death of General Grant at Mount McGregor, July 23. 
Funeral obsequies at New York, Aug. 8. 



IV. 

SELECT PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY 
VOCABULARY. 



.^ 



IV. 



SELECT PRONOUNCING AND EXPLANATORY 
VOCABULARY. 

MYTHOLOGICAL, BIOGRAPHICAL, GEOGRAPHICAL, AND 
ARCH^OLOGICAL. 

The pronunciation of dead languages is different in different countries. In Great 
Britain and the United States not less than three methods of Latin alone are followed. 
The so-called English method which for several centuries has prevailed among scholars 
of English speech and is used in most of the Standard Dictionaries of English, is given 
in this Vocabularj', which for convenience conforms generally to the system adopted in 
*' Webster's Unabridged Dictionary," edition of 1885. 

From the " Key" to the pronunciation of English words, on page xl of that work, the 
following synopsis of signs has been mainly drawn up : — 

Synopsis. 

a, e, i, o, ii, y, long, as in fate, mete, fine, note, lute, sky. 
a, e, i, 6, u, y, short, as in hat, met, hit, not, but, nymph, 
a, e, 6, u, as in share, there, stork, burn, 
a, o, u, as in Avander, wolf, pull. 

a, as in far ; a, as in grass ; a, as in talk ; se, as e in me ; a, obscure. 

e, as in obey ; e, as in verge ; e, obscure. 

i, as in police ; i, as in thirsty. 

6, as in son ; o, as in do ; 6d, as in food ; ob, as in good ; o, obscure. 

u after r, as in rude. 

e, /, (Italic), denote a silent letter, as fallen, cous/n, mason. 

9, as in mergy ; «, as in call. 

ch (unmarked), as in much; gh, as in maghine; ch, as in chasm. 

g, as in get; g, as in gem. 

s (unmarked), as in rest; §, as in hag. 

th (unmarked), as in breath; th, as in though. 

ng (unmarked), as in sing; n, as in link; x, as in example. 

ph, qu, ^vh (unmarked), as in philosophy, queen, a\vhile. 

oi, oy, ou, ow (unmarked), as in join, joj', hound, fowl. 

jKF" Note. All words not classical included in this Vocabulary, and not respelt in 
Webster, are respelt according to the foregoing Synopsis. 

The Greek and Latin Titles are given so as to exhibit their accentuation and separa- 
tion into syllables. 



308 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



The subjoined Comparative Table exhibits in four columns the Latin letters with 
their English equivalents, according to the three methods followed in the pronunciation 
of Latin words ; the letters noted are the most important. 

For fuller information concerning the English Method, see Webster's Dictionary, 
p. 1653 sq., and the Grammar of Andrews and Stoddard; concerning the Continental 
Method, the Grammar of Zumpt, and more recently that of Gildersleeve, on the basis of 
Lattmann and Miiller ; concerning the Roman Method^ the Grammar of Allen and 
Greenough. 

COMPARATIVE TABLE. 



I. 


II. 


III. 


IV. 


LATIN LETTERS. 


English Equivalents, according to 




English Method 
{Webster). 


Continental 
Method. 


Roman Method. 


Vowels. 








A vowel at the end of an accent- 








ed syllable is long, as Ca'to, 
Ce'crops, Di'do, So 'Ion, 
Cti'nice, Tyfrus. Such ac- 
cented vowels correspond to 


fatal, metre, 
vital, total, 
tutor, tyrant ; 


father, there, 
machine, no, 
rude; 


same as in Con- 
tinental Method. 


the vowels in 


rthe long sound, 








the long sound. 


same as in Con- 


E, O, U, at the end of an unac- 
cented syllable, have .... 


< as in me, note, 
l^lute; 


as in there, 
no, lute; 


tinental Method. 


Y, same as I, 

A, ending an unaccented sylla- 


long, as y in sky; 

short, as y in 
nymph ; 

long, a>«-in 


long, as i in 
machine ; i 

short, as y in 
nymph ; 

the same;* 


same as in 
S Continental 
Method. 

the same.* 


ble, 


father; 






I final is always long, except in 


long, as i in 


long, as i in 


same as in Con- 


tib%,sim; 


mine ; 


machine ; 


tinental Method. 


I at the end of initial unaccented 


n iarly as e in 


the same; 


the same. 


syllables varies between i and 


me, or i in it ; 






Diphthongs. 








JE., as in JE'a ; 


as e in me ; 


as ai in fair ; 


as German ai in 
Kaiser. 


CE, as in CE'ta ; 


as e in me ; 


as German o, or 
French eu ;* 


as oy in joy. 


All, as in Au'Us ; 


as au in haul ; 


as oil in house; 


as ou in liouse. 


Eu, as in Eti'rus ; 


as ew in few ; 


as oi in oil;* 


same as in Eng- 
lish Method. 


Ui, 


as i in kite ; 


as oui in French 
oiii; 


as we. 



1 Some prefer the French sound of u in sur; the short sounds have no exact English 
equivalents. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



309 



I. 

LATIX LETTERS. 



II. I III. 1 IV. 

English Equivalents, according to 





English Method 
(.Webster). 


Continental 






Method. 


Eovian Method. 


Consonants. 








C, before e, i, y, ae, ce, and eii, 


as s in since ; 


as ts, sharp, in 
gets;** 


ask. 


C, before a, o, u, and conso- 


as k; 


ask; 


ask. 


nants, 








Ch, 


ask; 


as ch in loch ; * 


ask. 


T, Th, Rh, 


ast, th,r; 


ast and r ; no th ; 


as tandr; noth. 


T, S, C, before ia, ie, ii, iii, 


as sli, zli. 


# 


# 


and eu, preceded immediately 








by the accent, 








T, after s, t, z, or when the 


# 


# 


# 


accent falls on the first of the 








vowels following, the conso- 








nant retains its pure sound, as 








in Brut'ti-i, Mil-Wades, 








etc. 








So also in the termination -tion, 


# 


# 


# 


as in The-o-do'tl-on ; 








S, 


as s in this ; 


as 8 in this; 


as s in this. 


S final, after e or a liquid. 


as z. 


# 


# 


Sell, 


assk; 


as s in sin, fol- 
lowed by ch in 
loch;* 


as sk. 


X initial. 


as z; 


as gs or ks ;* 


as gs or ks.* 


G before e, i, y, ae, oe, or an- 


asj; 


as g in get ; 


as g in get. 


other g, followed by e. 








G before a, o, u, and other con- 


as gin get; 


as g in get ; 


as g in get. 


sonants. 








J, 


as j in June ; 


as y in you ; 


as y in you. 


Pli initial before a mute is 


silent. 


# 


# 


as PJithiUi, 


Thi'a. 






P initial before s, t is 


silent. 


# 


# 


as Psy'che, 


Sy'ke, 






Ptol-e-tnce'us , 


Tol-e-mae'us. 






Mn, Tm, etc., initial consonants, 


mute. 


# 


# 


as Mne-tnos'y-ne, 


Ne-mos'y-ne, 






Tmo'lus, 


Mo^us. 






E in final syllable es, 


as es in Andes. 


* 


* 





* For the situations marked # under the Continental and Roman Methods, the lip of 
the teacher should supply the necessary illustration. 
** Some pronounce c = k throughout. 



310 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



Ab-bre'vi-a^tions of Latin Proper 
Names of frequent occurrence : — 
A., Aulus ; C, Cuius, or Gains; 
Cn., Cneus ; T>., Decimus ; L., Lu- 
cius ; M., Marcus ; P,, Publius ; 
Q., Quintus ; S., Sextus ; T., Titus. 

A-by'dus, Greek Abudos, a city of 
Mysia on the Hellespont nearly 
opposite Sestos on the European 
shore. 

Ac'ar-na^ni-a, Greek Akay-nania, 
the most westerly province of 
Greece, between Epirus and ^to- 
lia, 

Aiih'e-lo''us, Greek Achelo'os, the 
god of the river of that name, 
and the defeated competitor of 
Hercules. 

A«h'e-ron (Greek), a river leading 
to the lower world, or placed in it. 

A'cre {d'Mr), a seaport town in 
Syria. 

A-crop'o-lis (Greek), literally the 
upper or higher city; a citadel, 
especially that of Athens. 

.^'dile, Latin aedilis, literally mas- 
ter-builder, architect, a magistrate 
in Rome who had charge of public 
works, buildings, etc. ; also of the 
public spectacles, etc. Before 
• Julius Caesar there were two 
classes of sediles, those of the 
people, called yE. Plebeii, who sat 
on benches, and the ^diles curules, 
who obtained their name from 
the sella curulis, or chair, on which 
they sat for judgment. Julius 
Caesar added a third class, called 
^. Cereales, who had charge of 
the public granaries, etc. 

.^-gi'na, Greek Aigina, an island 



in the Saronic Gulf; surrounded 
by Attica, Megaris, and Epidau- 
rus; also the name of its chief 
city. 

uE-gu'sa, Greek Aigoussa, the 
southernmost of a group of three 
small islands off the western ex- 
tremity of Sicily; its modern 
name is Favignana. 

.^'li-a^nus, Greek Ailianos, a Greek 
sophist, and writer of history. 

.^-o'li-an, relating to the -^oles, 
or ^olii, one of the four races 
into which the Hellenes are 
usually divided, supposed to be 
the descendants of the mythical 
JEolus, the son of Hellen, 

A-la'ni (Mongolian; literally moun- 
taineer), a Scythian people upon 
the Tanais and Palus Maeotis ; 
afterwards on the Danube, and 
lastly with the Vandali and Suevi 
in Gaul and Spain. 

Al-can'der, Greek Alkandros, a 
young Spartan. 

Al'ci-bi^a-de§, Greek Alkibiades, 
was born at Athens about b.c, 450. 

Alc-me'ne, Greek Alkmene, the 
daughter of Electryon and An- 
axus, the mother of Hercules, 
and the wife of Amphitryon. 

Al-phe'us, Greek Alpheios, the 
chief river of Peloponnesus. 

Am'a-zons, Greek Amazones, a 
mythical race of warlike women. 

A'mi-ens, d'me-eng (French), a town 
in the Picardie, on the Somme, in 
north-western France. 

A-mi'na, d-mi'nd (Arabic), also 
Emina {e-mi'nu), the mother of 
Mohammed, was of Jewish birth. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



311 



Am-phic'ty-on^ic Council, or 

League, Greek Amphictuonia, a 
kind of national institution em- 
bracing the principal Hellenic 
states, and founded for maintain- 
ing the common interests of 
Greece. 

Am-phit'ry-on (Greek), the son of 
Alcjeus and Hipponome, and the 
putative father of Hercules. 

An-ti'o-chus, Greek Antiochos, the 
name of numerous historical per- 
sons. 

Aq'uit-aine', ak'it-dn' (Latin Aqiii- 
tdnia), a proAance in Southern 
Gaul, between the Loire and the 
Pyrenees ; the modern Guienne. 

Ar-be'la, a town of Eastern Adia- 
bene, a province of Assyria. 

Ar-ca'di-a (Greek), the central 
country of Peloponnesus. 

Ar'chi-da^mus, Greek Archidamos, 
the name of five Spartan kings. 

Ar'-ehi-me'deg, Greek Archimedes, 
of Syracuse, the most celebrated 
of ancient mathematicians. 

Ar'^hon, name of the nine chief 
magistrates at Athens ; the archon 
being the highest in authority. 

Ar^de-a, a very ancient city of La- 
tium, 24 miles south of Kome, still 
extant under the same name. 

A're§, d'rei (Greek), the god of war, 
the son of Zeus and Hera. 

Ar'go-lis (Greek), the territory of 
Argos ; also called the Argeia, 
extended from N. to S., from the 
frontiers of Phlius and Cleon£e 
to those of Cynuria ; it was sep- 
arated on the W. from Arcadia, 
and from Epidaurus on the E. 



Ayis-ti^deg, Greek Aristeides, son 
of Lysimachus, an illustrious 
Athenian. 

A-ris'to-de'mus, Greek Aristode- 
mos, the name of: 1. the father 
of Eurysthenes and Procles, p. 
10; 2. the Spartan known as 
" the coward " ; and many other 
persons. 

Ar-ma-da (Spanish), a naval or 
military armament. 

Ar'ta-pher^ne§, 1. the son of Hys- 
taspes and brother of Darius ; 
2. the son of the former, in joint 
command with Datis. 

A'rans, the son of Tarquinius Su- 
perbus. 

A-the'na (Greek), a Greek goddess 
identified with the Minerva of 
the Romans. 

A'thos (Greek), a lofty mountain 
at the extremity of a long penin- 
sula between the Singitic Gulf 
and the ^gean. The peninsula 
and the mountain are designated 
by the modern name of Hayion 
Oros, i.e., the Holy Mountain, on 
account of the numerous mon- 
asteries and chapels with which 
it is covered. 

At'las (Greek), tlie leader of the 
Titans in their conflict with Zeus, 
who was condemned to bear 
heaven on his head and hands. 

At'ti-ca, Greek Attike, one of the 
political divisions of Greece. 

Au'er-stadt, ou'^r-stett (German), 
a village N. of Weimar, in Saxe- 
Weimar. 

Au-ge'as, Greek Avgeias, a legend- 
ary king of Elis. 



312 



SELECT VOCABULARY, 



Au'ster-litz, ou'ster-Utts (German), 
a town in Austria, S. of Briinn. 

A-var' (Slavonic), in Latin Avm-, 
pi, Avares, the name of a Scythian 
tribe in Hungary and elsewhere. 
The word Hungary is said to be 
a compound of Hun and Avar, 
Hunavar, corrupted into Hungarn, 
as in Old High German. 

Ba-si-leus' (Greek), literally a king ; 
designated at Athens one of the 
chief magistrates second in rank. 

Basques, hdsk (French), name of 
the natives of the Spanish prov- 
ince of Biscay. 

Baut'zen, bout' sen (German), a town 
in the kingdom of Saxony. 

Beau-har'nais, ho-ar-nd (French), 
name of the first husband of Jo- 
sephine and their children; her 
daughter Hortense was the mother 
of Napoleon III. 

Beresi'na, ber-e-se'na, a swampy 
tributary of the Dnieper; the 
passage took place W. of Smo- 
lensk, above Borrissow, Russia. 

Bi'as, of Priene, in Ionia; one of 
the Seven Sages. 

Bib'u-lus, L. Calpurnius, the con- 
temporary of Julius Caesar. 

Bi-thyn'i-a, Greek Bithunia, a di- 
vision of Asia Minor, bounded on 
the W. by Mysia, the Propontis, 
and the Bosporus ; on the N. by 
the Euxine ; on the E. by Pontus ; 
and on the S. by Phrygia and 
Galatia. 

Bi'ton, and Cle'o-bis, the sons of 
Cydippe, the priestess of Juno or 
Hera, at Argos. 



Ble'da (Slavonic bleida; German 
BIddel). 

Bo-e'thi-us, a philosophic writer ; 
died, A.D, 524. 

Bru-maire', name of the second 
month of the calendar adopted by 
the first French republic. 

Bu-ceph'a-lus, Greek Boukephalos, 
literally bull's head, from the 
mark with which it was branded ; 
the horse of Alexander. 

Byr'sa (Greek), literally a bull's 
hide, the name of the original 
site of the citadel and city of 
Carthage. 

By-zan'ti-um, Greek Buzantion, a 
city in Thrace, afterwards Con- 
stantinople. 

Ca-a-ba (Arabic), name of the 
temple at Mecca, so called from 
its cubical shape, the Arabic kakb 
signifying cube. 

Ca-di'jah, cd-dee'yd (Arabic). 

Cad-me'a, Greek Kadmeia, was the 
name of the western half of the 
city of Thebes, and the Kadmeia, 
the acropolis on the lofty southern 
hill. 

Cae're, identical with Agulla of the 
Greeks, an ancient city in Southern 
Etruria ; the modern village of 
Cervetri marks the site. 

Cae'gar, a surname of uncertain 
derivation, and the title, after 
Julius Caesar, conjoined to that 
of Augustus, of all the Roman 
emperors until Hadrian, when C. 
denoted the crown prince. It is 
the same word as the German 
Kaiser, and possibly connected 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



313 



with the Russian " czar " or 
"tsarj." 

Cam'pus Mar'ti-us, the field or 
camp of Mars at Rome, is the name 
given to the plain between the 
Pincian, Quirinal, and Capitoline 
hills on the E., and the Tiber on 
the W. 

Can'nae, a small town of Apulia, 
on the Aufidus. 

Car'tliage, IjaXm Carthago ; its name 
is derived from a Phoenician root 
signifying city. It stood on the 
peninsula between the old Phoeni- 
cian colonies of Utica and Tunis, 
in the region of N. Africa called 
by the Romans Zeugitana. 

Cas'tor and Pol'lux, Greek ^as^o?- 
and Pohideukes, twin brothers re- 
warded for their affection with a 
place in the heavens, where they 
shine as the Gemini, "the twins." 

Ce'crops, Greek Kekrops, name of 
the first king of Attica, which de- 
rived from him its name Cecropia. 

^en'taur (Greek), literally a bull- 
stabber, the name of a fabulous 
monster. 

^er'be-riSs, Greek Kerberos, the 
watch-dog in the lower world. 

Cer'y-ne^a, Greek Keruneia, a town 
of Achaia. 

-Chser'o-ne^a, Greek Ghaironeia, a 
town of Boeotia. 

-Gha-gan', Slavonic, in Latin Cag- 
dnus or Cac-dnus, the name or 
title of the kings of the Avars. 
See Avar. 

-ehal-ce'don, Greek Chalkedon, a 
city of Bithynia in Asia Minor, 
the modern Scutari. 



-Char'i-la^us, Greek Charilaos, a 

king of Sparta. 
-€her'so-nese, Latin Chersonesus, 
Greek Chersonesos, literally a land- 
island, a peninsula ; a name given 
to a number of localities, e.g., the 
Thracian Ch., the Tauric Ch., 
the Golden Ch., etc. 
-Ghi'lon, Greek Cheilon, a Spartan, 
one of the Seven Sages. 

Cim'ber, L. Tillius, one of the 
murderers of Caesar. 

Ci'mon, Greek KimMi, the son of 
]\riltiades. 

Cle'o-bis, see Biton. 

Cle'o-bu^lus, Greek Kleohouhs, a 
citizen of Lindus in Rhodes, one 
of the Seven Sages. 

Cloe'li-a, the name of the famous 
hostage. 

Clu'si-um, Greek Klousion, an an- 
cient and inland city of Etruria, 
near the modern Chiusi. 

Co'cle§, Horatius, literally Hora- 
tius, " the one-eyed." 

Co'drus, Greek Kodros, the self- 
sacrificing king of Athens. 

Col'la-ti^nus, the husband of Lu- 
cretia. 

Con'sul (Latin), one of the two high- 
est magistrates of the Roman state. 

Cor'cy-ra, or Cor-cy'ra, Greek Kor- 
kura, the name of the island and 
its principal city, now called Co7/«. 

Cos, Greek Kos, a beautiful island 
in the Myrtoan Sea, off the west- 
ern shore of Asia Minor. 

Cos'sack, Russian Kasack, literally 
a robber or light-armed soldier; 
a warlike tribe in tlie east and 
south of Russia. 



314 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



Creon, Greek Kreon, the name of 

three mythical persons. 
Cret'e, Latin Creta, Greek Krete, an 

island in the ^gean. 
Croe'sus, Greek Kroisos, the last 

king of Lydia. 
Cu'mae, Greek Kume, one of the 

most famous and ancient Greek 

colonies, a city on the coast of 

Campania. It was the home of 

the Sibyl. 
Cunc-ta'tor (Latin), literally a de- 
layer, a loiterer. 
Cyc'la-de§, Greek Kuklades, a group 

of islands in the iEgean Sea, so 

called from their lying in a circle 

round Delos, the smallest of the 

group. 
Cyd'nus, Greek Kudnos, a river of 

Cilicia flowing through Tarsus. 
Cy'prus, Greek Kupros, an island 

lying off the coast of Phoenicia 

and Cilicia. 
Cy'rus, Greek Kuros, the name of 

two Persian monarchs. 
Czar, czaar, Zar, zaar. Tsar, tsaar ; 

all these variations are found ; 

Eussian tsarj, a king; title of the 

emperor of Russia. 

Da-ri'us, Greek Dareios, Dareiaios, 
the name of several Persian mon- 
archs. 

Da'tis, Greek Dads, a Persian com- 
mander. 

Daun, German doun, an Austrian 
field-marshal. 

De'li-um, Greek Delion, a city on 
the coast of Boeotia. 

De-cre'tals, a book containing a 
collection of papal decrees. 



De-i'a-nei^ra (Greek), the wife of 
Hercules. 

Del'phi, Greek Delphoi, a town in 
Phocis, famed for the oracle of 
Apollo. 

Dem'i-iirge (Greek Demiourgoi, 
Latin Demiurgi), artisans, one 
of the three classes into which 
the Athenian people were di- 
vided. 

Den'ne-witz, den'ne-vitts (German), 
a village S. of Grossbeeren, near 
Jiiterbog. 

Der'vish, Persian derveesch, poor, 
from derew, to beg ; literally a 
beggar ; spelt also Dervis. 

De-si-de'ri-us, or Didler, the last 
king of the Lombards. 

Dess'aii, German Dess'ou, name of 
a distinguished general, and of a 
town in North Germany. 

Di-a'na, sister of Apollo, the god- 
dess of the moon and of hunting. 

Di'do, the reputed foundress of 
Carthage. 

Di-og'e-ne§ (Greek), the Cynic, a 
native of Sinope in Pontus. 

Di^o-me'deg (Greek), king of the 
Bistones in Thrace. 

Do'ri-ans, the inhabitants of Doris, 
a small hill country in Greece, 
bounded by Aetolia, Southern 
Thessaly, the Ozolian Locrians, 
and Phocis; they conquered the 
Peloponnesus and spread over the 
iEgean. 

Dra'co, Greek Drakon, the author 
of the first written code of laws 
at Athens. 

Du-ili-us, C, was consul with Cn. 
Cornelius Asina in b.c. 260. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



315 



Dyr-rha'chi-uni, Gr. Durrhachion, 
a city on the coast of Illyricum, 
formerly called Epiuamnus, now 

Durazzo. 

Ec-bat'a-na, old Greek orthog- 
raphy Agbatana, a famous city of 
Media. 

Ec'no-mus, Greek Eknomos, a hill 
on the S. coast of Sicily, between 
Agrigentum and Gela. 

El'ba, eVbii, an island in the Medi- 
terranean, between Corsica and 
the mainland, called by the Ko- 
raans Ilva, and by the Greeks 
Aithalia. 

E'lis (Greek), a district of Pelopon- 
nesus, and also the name of its 
capital. At Olympia, a town in 
Ells, the celebrated Olympic 
Games were held. 

Eph'or, Greek Epkoros, Latin Epho- 
riis, literally an overseer (plur. 
the ephoroi), the name, at Sparta, 
of an executive directory of five 
magistrates. 

Ep'l-men^i-de§ (Greek), a poet and 
prophet of Crete, reckoned by 
some among the Seven Sages. 

E'res-burg (German), now Stadt- 
herg on the Diemel, a tributary 
of the Weser. 

Er'y-man'thus, Greek ErumantJios, 
a lofty range of mountains on the 
frontiers of Arcadia, Achaia, and 
Elis. 

Er'y-thei^a, Gr-Erutheia, an island 
near the Latin Gades, the Phoeni- 
cian Gadir, the Greek Gadeira, or 
the modern Cadiz or Cadix, the 



chief Phoenician colony on the 
ocean, beyond the Pillars of Her- 
cules. 

Ex-arch'ate, strictly the territories 
of Ravenna, Bologna, and Fer- 
rara, and of the Pentapolis, ad- 
ministered by an Exarch, Greek 
exarchos, Latin exarchiis ; literally 
a prince, a viceroy. 

Eu-e'nus, or E-ve'nus, Greek Eiie- 
nos, a river of Aetolia. 

Eu'no-mus, Greek Eunomos, see 
p. 7; also the name of a king of 
Sparta, see p. 9. 

Eu-pat'ri-dae, Greek Eupatridai, 
literally the descendants of a good 
or noble father; at Athens they 
were the first class of the citi- 
zens. 

Eu-phra'te§, "the great river" 
which rises in Armenia and 
empties into the Persian Gulf; 
the name, said to signify "fertil- 
ity," survives in the modern i^?-af, 
or Forat. 

Eu-rys'the-ue§, Greek Eurustkenes, 
and Procles, Greek Prokles, the 
twin sons of Aristodemus. 

Eu-rys'the-us, Gr. Eurustheus, son 
of Sthenelos, king of Mycenze. 

Eu-ryt'i-on, Greek Eurution, a son 
of Mars and Erythia, herdsman 
of Geryones. 

Eu'ry-tus, Greek Eurutos, the father 
of lole. Sec p. 7. 

Eu-se'bi-us, Greek Eusebios, bishop 
of Caesareia, the father of ecclesi- 
astical history. 

Eu'xine, Greek Euxinos, Latin 
Euxlnus Pontus, the Black Sea. 



316 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



Fontaine'bleau, fdng-tdne'hlo (Fr.), 
a town on the left bank of the 
Seine, 35 miles S.E. of Paris. 

Fo'rum (Latin), at Rome, the mar- 
ket-place where public business 
was transacted and justice dis- 
pensed. 

Fre'jug, a town of France in the 
department of Var. 

Fried'land, fred'land, a town on 
the AUe, in East Prussia, E. of 
Eylau. 

Ga'bi-1, an ancient city of Latium, 
on the road from Rome to Prae- 
neste. 

Ga-le^ri-us Va-le^ri-us Max'im-i- 
a^nus, also called Maximia'nus 
II., Roman emperor. 

Gaul, Latin Gallia, the country of 
the Gauls ; the term Gallia ulterior 
or Transalpina designated Gaul 
beyond the Rhine, while Gallia 
citerior or Cisalpina denoted Gaul 
in Upper Italy. 

Ggl'im-er, last king of the Vatf-. 
dais. 

Ge-om'o-ri, Greek Geomoroi, land- 
owners, but at Athens the third 
class of citizens, designating hus- 
bandmen. 

Ge-ru'si-a, Greek Gerousia, literally 
a council of elders, senators; at 
Sparta, the Senate or aristocratic 
assembly. 

Ge-ry'o-ne§, Greek Geruones, a giant 
who was slain by Hercules. 

Gra-nl^cus, Greek Granikos, a river 
in Troas which emptied into the 
Propontis. 

Grossbee'ren, gross-bey' ren (Ger- 



man), a village about 20 miles S. 
of Berlin. 
Gyin-iia'§i-um, Greek Gi/mnasion, 
the public place where athletic 
exercises were practised. 

Ha'dri-an, Latin Hadrianus, P. 
Ae' lilts, fourteenth Roman em- 
peror. 

Had'ru-me^tum, a Phoenician col- 
ony older than Carthage, on the 
sea-coast, and one of the chief 
cities of Africa Propria. 

Ha-mil^car, a Carthaginian name 
of frequent occurrence. 

Han^ni-bal, a Carthaginian name 
of frequent occurrence. 

Has'dru-bal, more correctly Asdru- 
hal, a Carthaginian name of fre- 
quent occurrence. 

He-gi'ra, or Hejira, Arabic hedjrat, 
lit, flight or emigration ; the flight 
of Mohammed, July 16, a.d. 622, 
from which is dated the Moham- 
medan era. 

Hell'e-nop^o-lis (Greek), literally 
the city of Helena, in Bithynia. 

Hel'les-pont, Latin Hellespontus, 
Greek Hellespontos, the strait 
which divides Europe from Asia, 
and unites the Propontis with the 
^gean. 

He-lo^te§, Greek Heilotes, of uncer- 
tain derivation, a serf or bonds- 
man of the Spartans. 

He^'ra (Greek), the wife of Zeus, 
answering to the Juno of the 
Romans. 

Her'cu-le§, Gr. Her'a-cles. See p. 1. 

Her'mes, the Greek name of Mer- 
curius. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



317 



Hes-per^i-de§, the earlier name of 
the Cyrenaic city, Berenice ; the 
name of the fabled gardens, and 
of the mythical daughters of 
Night. 

Hi^e-ro, Greek Hieron, the name of 
two kings of Syracuse. 

Hip'po-drome, Greek hippodromos, 
from hippos, a horse, and dromos, 
a course ; a race-course for horses 
and chariots. 

Hohenlin'den, ho-hen-lin'den (Ger- 
man), a village in Upper Bavaria, 
S. of Munich. 

Hy'dra, Greek Hudra, literally a 
water-serpent, the monster killed 
by Hercules near the Lernean lake. 

Hy'per-bo're-ans, Greek Huper- 
boreioi, literally beyond Boreas, 
i.e. the north wind; a supposed 
people in the extreme north, noted 
for piety and happiness. 

I-be^ri-a, an extensive tract of coun- 
try between the Euxine and the 
Caspian seas, to the south of the 
Caucasus. 

il'di-co, German HiVdegunde, the 
last wife of Attila. 

I-maum' (Arabic), also Imam and 
Iman, a Mohammedan scribe, 
secular clergyman, president of a 
mosque, and spiritual judge. See 
Mohammed, p. 128. 

Ingria, German Ligermannland, for- 
merly a Swedish province in the 
Baltic. 

I'o-la^os (Greek), the friend of Her- 
cules. 

I^'o-le (Greek), the daughter of 
Eurytus. 



I-o'ni-aii, relating to the country 
and people of Ionia, or that part 
of the western coast of Asia Minor 
from Phocaea in the north to 
Miletus in the south. 

Ir-men-sul^, German Irmensdule, an 
ancient sacred tree which stood 
in a sacred grove between the 
Weser and the Diemel. 

Ig'lam (Arabic), literally surrender, 
then the orthodox faith, and thus 
the name of the Mohammedan 
religion. 

I'van, e'van (Russian), John. 

Je'na, yey'nd (German), a univer- 
sity town, E. of Weimar. 

Ju^no (Latin), daughter of Saturn, 
sister and wife of Jupiter; re- 
sembling in many respects the 
Hera of the Greeks. 

Ju^pi-ter (Latin), the chief of the 
gods among the Romans, son of 
Saturn; answering to the Greek 
Zeus. 

Katz'bach, catts-bach {ch German 
sound), a tributary of the Oder. 
The battle was fought near the 
village of Wahlstadt. 

Ko'reish, ko'rlsh (Arabic), the name 
of the most noble tribe of the 
Arabs. 

Krem'lin, name of the ancient 
citadel of Moscow. 

Kulm' (German), a village near 
Teplitz in Bohemia, 

Kun'n6rs-d6rf (German), a vil- 
lage in tlie Prussian province of 
Brandenburg, near Frankfort-on- 
the-Oder. 



318 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



Kiis'trin, German ii (German), town 
in Prussia, on the Oder. 

IJab'a-rum, name of the Roman 
military standard of later times. 

JJag-e-dac'niGii, Greek Lakedaimon 
and Lakonike, called by the Ro- 
mans Laconica and Laconia, desig- 
nates the south-easterly district 
of Peloponnesus, and frequently 
Sparta. 

Lie-o'bgn, mining town in Styria. 

Ler^na, or Lerne (Greek), a marshy 
district in Argolis. 

Leu'then, loi'ten, a village in Si- 
lesia, eight miles N.W. of Breslau. 

liign'y, linn' ye (French), a village 
N.W. of Namur in Belgium. 

IJm'us, Greek Linos, the son of 
Apollo and Urania, who taught 
Orpheus and Hercules to play the 
lyre. 

Liip'a-ra( Greek), the modern Lipari, 
the largest of the group of the 
^olian Islands, between Sicily 
and Italy. 

Liu'ca, a city of Etruria, now Lucca. 

Liune'ville, lii-ney'vil {ii French 
sound), a town in Lorraine, W. 
of Strassburg. 

Lu-per-ca'li-a, name of a boisterous 
festival of the Lycean Pan, cele- 
brated at Rome in February. 

Liu-cre^ti-a (Latin), the wife of L. 
Tarquinius Collatinus. 

Iiy-cur^gus, Greek Lukourgos, the 
Spartan legislator. 

Lyd^i-a, Greek Ludia, a country in 
the western part of Asia Minor. 

Mag-nc'si-a (Greek), the name of a 



city on the Masander in Ionia, and 
of a town on the slope of Mount 
Sipylus in Lydia. 

Mam'e-luke, Arabic mam-ldok' , one 
of the mounted soldiery of Egypt, 
formed of Circassian slaves of 
the Sultan. 

Ma-mil'i-us Oc-ta'vi-us (Latin), the 
son-in-law of Tarquinius Superbus. 

Marche, or March, allied to the 
German Mark, a frontier or bor- 
der country. 

Mar'ci-a^nus, or, abbreviated, Mar- 
cian, name of an emperor of the 
East, A.D. 450-457. 

Mar-do^ni-us, Greek Mardonios, a 
Persian general. 

Ma-ren'go, a village near Alessan- 
dria on the Tanara, a tributary of 
the Po. 

Mar§ (Latin), the god of war, son 
of Jupiter and Juno. 

Mas-sil'i-a, a celebrated seaport 
town in Gallia, the modern Mar- 
seilles. 

Max'i-iiii-a''nus, Roman emperor, 
the father of Fausta, wife of Con- 
stantine the Great. 

Me-di'na, me-de'na, (Arabic), name 
of a city in Arabia, 248 miles N. 
by W. of Mecca. 

Me-dini'nus, Greek Medimnos, the 
usual Attic corn-measure, contain- 
ing almost 12 imperial gallons, or 
IJ bushel. 

MeMon (Greek), the first Athenian 
archon. 

Meg^a-ra (Greek), the name of a 
city in Greece Proper, a mile from 
the Saronic Gulf; and of a city 
in Sicily. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



319 



Mel'a-nlp^pe (Greek), a queen of 
the Amazons. 

Me^mel, imy'mel (German), a forti- 
fied seaport in East Prussia, 74 
miles N.N.E. of Konigsberg. 

Me-tau^rus, a river of Umbria flow- 
ing into the Adriatic, which pre- 
serves its name in the modern 
^/etauro or Metro. 

Mi-kai'lo-vitch,orMi-khai'lo-vitch, 
me-ki' W-vitsh (Russian), signifying 
the son of Mikhail, second name 
of the father of Peter the Great. 

3Iile, Roman, Latin mille or viile, 
literally 1,000 paces, or a Roman 
mile, estimated at 1,618 English 
yards, or 142 yards less than the 
English statute mile. 

Mil'vi-iis, or 3Iul'vi-iis, Pons, the 
Milvian Bridge across the Tiber, 
above Rome, on the Via Flaminia. 

Min^ci-us, a tributary river of the 
Po in Cisalpine Gaul, the modern 
Minc'io. 

Mith-ri-da'te§ V., the son of Phar- 
naces, king of Pontus. 

'M.ontn\a.Tt're,mSng-mdrtr'(Frexvc\i), 
a hill and suburb of Paris, 

Mog'lem, a Mussulman. 

Mufti, the head or high priest of 
the Mohammedan clergy. 

Mun'da, a city in Hispania (Spain), 
now Moncla. 

My-ce''nae, Greek Mukenai, a very 
ancient cit}' of the plain of Argos. 

3Iy^lae, Greek Mulai, a city on the 
north coast of Sicily. 

Myt'i-le'ne, or Mitylene, Gr. Muti- 
Icne or Mitulene, a celebrated city 
of Lesl)os, an island off the coast 
of Mysia; now Metelin. 



Nar'seg (Greek), the rival of Beli- 

sarius. 
Na-rys'kine, or Na-rych'kine, 

nd-ris'ken, nd-ricli'ken (Russian), 

family name of the mother of 

Peter the Great. 
Ne^me-a (Greek), a valley in the 

northern part of Argolis, between 

Chleonae and Phlius. 
Ne^o-cle§ (Greek), the father of 

Themistocles. 
Ne^re-us (Greek), a mythical char- 
acter, the wise, unerring old man 

of the sea. 
Ni-gse^a, Greek Nikaia, a city in 

Bithynia, now called Isnik or 

Nice. 
Nic'o-me^deg III., Greek iViA;omef/e5, 

king of Bithynia, died B.C. 74. 
Nic'o-me-di^a, Greek Nikomedeia, 

the capital of Bithynia. 
Nie'men, ne'men, called the Memel 

near its end, a river flowing from 

Russian Poland to E. Prussia, 

Avhich empties into the Curische- 

Haff. 
Ni'ka, ne'kd (Greek), name of the 

sedition at Constantinople. 
Nu-mid^i-a, the central tract on the 

north coast of Africa now known 

as Algeria. 

O-do^a-cer, the first king of Italy. 
Oe^ne-us, Greek Oineus, a river of 

Pannonia, now called Unna. 
Oe^ta, Greek Oite, a mountain in the 

southern part of Thessaly. 
Ol'i-giireh-y, GreekOIifjarchia, from 

oliyos, few, and archein, to rule ; 

a government in the hands of a 

few. 



320 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



O-lym^pus, Greek Olumpos, a lofty 
mountain on the Macedonian 
boundary of Thessaly. 

Om^pha-le (Greek), the wife of 
Tmolus, king of Lydia. 

O-ro^si-us, a Latin historian, a na- 
tive of Spain, flourished a.d. 416. 

Or^thrus, Greek Orthros, the dog of 
Geryones. 

Pad-er-born', pdd-er-hdrn' , town in 
the Prussian province of West- 
phalia. 

Pap'u-a, or Papp'u-a Mons, an 
inaccessible mountain region in 
Numidia. 

Par'the-non (Greek), the temple of 
Athena Parthenos, i.e. Athena the 
Virgin, in the citadel at Athens. 

Pa^ros (Greek), one of the largest 
islands of the Cyclades. 

Par-rha^si-us, Greek Parrhasios, 
one of the most celebrated Greek 
painters. 

Pel'o-pon-ne^sus, Gr. Peloponnesos', 
the southern part of Greece, con- 
nected with the mainland by the 
isthmus of Corinth, now theMorea. 

Pen-jab', Panjab, or Punjab, Greek 
Pentapotamia, literally " five riv- 
ers," a large district in the north- 
west of Hindustan, watered by 
the Indus and its five great af- 
fluents. 

Peii-ta-co'si-o-ine-dini''iii ( Greek ) , 
literally 500 medimni, at Athens 
the first class of citizens under the 
timocracy established by Solon. 

Pe'ri-an^'der, Gr. Periandros, tyrant 
of Corinth, was commonly reck- 
oned among the Seven Sages. 



Per'i-oe^ci, Greek Perwikoi, literally 
dwellers around the city. In La- 
conia, except Sparta, the free in- 
habitants of the towns ; at Sparta, 
the provincials, who enjoyed civil 
liberty, but inferior political privi- 
leges. 

Pha-le^rum, Greek Phaleron, the 
western harbor of Athens. 

Phar^na-ces, Greek PharnaJces, the 
name of two kings of Pontus. 

Phar-sa^Ius, Greek Pharsalos, a 
city in Thessaly. Also Pharsa^- 
lia, when it designates the entire 
region about the city. 

Phid^i-as, Greek Pheidias, the great- 
est sculptor and statuary of 
Greece. 

Pho^ci-on, Greek Pho^kion, a cele- 
brated Athenian commander and 
statesman. 

Phoe-nic^i-a, Gr. Phoinike, a coun- 
try on the coast of Syria, bounded 
on the E. by Mount Lebanon. 

Pillars of Her^cu-les, Greek Hera- 
kleous Stelai and other forms, 
Latin Herculis Columnae, the name 
given to the twin rocks at the en- 
trance of the Mediterranean, at 
the eastern extremity of the Straits 
of Gibraltar. 

Pi-sis ^tra-tus, Gr. Peisistratos, the 
distinguished tyrant of Athens. 

Pit^ta-cus, Greek Pittakos, a native 
of Mytilene in Lesbos, was one of 
the Seven Sages. 

Plu^to, Greek Plouton, the king of 
the lower world, the brother of 
Jupiter and Neptune, 

Pol^e-mar«li, Greek Polemarchos, 
literally leader or beginner of 



SELECT VOCABULARY, 



321 



war, was the third archon at 

Athens. 
Pol'y-dec^tes, Greek Poludehtes, the 

brother of Lycurgus and the 

father of Charilaus. 
Pon^ti-fex 3Iax^i-inus (Latin), the 

chief or supreme high priest at 

Rome. 
Pon^tus, Greek Pontos, or, in full, 

Pon^tus Eux^inus, either the 

Black Sea, or a province in Asia 

Minor, 
Por^se-na, Lars, king of Clusium. 

" Lars " was a title of honor given 

to most of the Etruscan kings. 
Pot'i-dae^a, Greek Potidaia, a city 

in the peninsula Pallene, later 

merged in Cassandreia. 
Poteseh^ni, pO-tesh^ne (Russian), 

name of military companies of 

Peter the Great. 
Pos-tu^mi-us, Aulus, was dictator 

at Rome in b.c. 498. The Postumia 

gens Avas one of the most ancient 

patrician families of the city. 
Prae^tor (Latin), literally one who 

goes before, a Roman magistrate 

charged with the administration 

of justice. 
Preobrashens^koe,7Jre-5^-6rasZ!-e>is^- 

ho (Russian), name of a village 

near Moscow. 
Presburg, pr^ss^hirg, a town in 

Hungary, on the left bank of the 

Danube. 
Pres'ti-dig-i-ta^tor, from Latin 

praesto, quickly, and digitus,^nger ; 

a quick -fingered person,one skilled 

in legerdemain. 
Pro^cle§ (Greek), one of the twin 

sons of Aristodemus. 



Pro-con^sul (Latin), literally one 
who acts instead of a consul ; gen- 
erally the governor of a Roman 
province. 

Pru''si-as, Greek Pj^ousias, king of 
Bithynia. 

Prussian-Eylau, . . . -I'low, German 
Preussisch-Eylau, a town S. of 
Konigsberg in East Prussia. 

Pryt'a-ne^um, Gr. Prutaneion, the 
president's hall, or the town-hall, 
in Greek cities. 

Ptol^e-mse-us, Greek Ptolemaios, 
the name of the kings of Egypt 
after Alexander the Great. 

Pulta^-wa, or Pulto^wa, pul-ta^vd, 
pul-to^va, name of the capital of 
the Ukraine (do-crdn^), E. of the 
middle course of the Dnieper. 

Qu8es''tor( Latin), literally a seeker; 
a Roman magistrate who dis- 
charged the duties of a treasurer. 

Rat^isbon, rat^iz-hdn, German Re- 
genshurg, a town on the right bank 
of the Danube, in Bavaria. 

Ra-ven^na, name of a seaport in 
Gallia Cis., still bearing the same 
name. 

Re-gil^lus, La^cus, a small lake in 
Latium, at the foot of the Tuscu- 
lan Hills. 

Regime, re^sheem (French), style of 
government ; old regime, former 
style or order of government. 

Rha-gae^, Greek Rhagai, etc., a city 
of Media, the capital of Rhagiana, 
one day's journey from the Cas- 
pian Gates and ten days' march 
from Ecbatana. 



322 



SELECT VOCABULARY, 



Rhe^tor (Greek), a rhetorician, an 
orator. 

Rhodes, i^odz, Greek Rodos, Latin 
Rho^dus, an island off the coast of 
Caria. 

Roche^'fort, rSs¥fdr (French), a 
maritime town of France, on the 
Charente. 

Roncesvalles^, or Ronceval^, 
rOnd-se-vaV, a narrow pass in the 
Pyrenees. 

Ros^tra, rds^tra, a stage for speak- 
ers in the Forum, and the space 
around it, so called from the 
beaks of captured ships with 
which it was adorned. 

Ru^bi-con, and Ru^bi-co, a small 
stream which formed the boun- 
dary between Italy and Cisalpine 
Gaul ; probably the modern Pisa- 
tello. 

Saal^feld, sdVfeld (German), a 
town on the Saale, in the princi- 
pality of Saxe-Meiningen. 

Sa'gse, Greek Sahai, a people of 
Northern Asia, a part of the 
Scythians. 

Sa-gun^tum, Gr. Sagoimton, a town 
in Hispania Tarraconensis. 

Sam^ni-um, one of the chief inland 
districts of Central Italy. 

Sar^'deg, Greek Sardeis, often writ- 
ten Sardis, the ancient capital of 
Lydia. 

Schon-brunn^ (o German sound), 
an imperial castle S.W. of Vienna. 

Sgip^i-o, the name of an illustrious 
patrician family at Rome. 

Se-ragl^io, sS-raVyo, said to be a 
noun of Persian origin, which in 



its Italian form of serraglio is de- 
rived from the Latin sera, a door- 
bar, and denotes literally " that 
which is locked." The Persian 
serai denotes a palace, and espe- 
cially that part of it occupied by 
the wives of Eastern monarchs. 

Sib^yl, Greek Sihulla, literally she 
that tells the will of Zeus ; a fe- 
male soothsayer, a prophetess. 

Sig-'burg, or Siegburg, seg^hury, 
name of an old castle and of a 
modern town on the Sieg in 
Rhenish Prussia. 

Si-le^si-a, sUe-shi-d, a province in 
S.E. Prussia, 

Sir^mi-um, an ancient and impor- 
tant city in the south-eastern part 
of Lower Pannonia. 

Smo-lensk'', a town on the upper 
course of the Dnieper, in Russia. 

Sou-bise^, su-b'is'^ (French), name of 
a general. 

Spar^ta, Greek Sparte, the capital 
of Laconia; it was also called 
Lacedaemon. 

Spu-rin^na, an Etruscan name, that 
of the haruspex who warned 



Sta^di-um, Greek stadion, literally 
that which stands fast, a fixed 
standard of length measuring 600 
Greek feet, 125 Roman paces, or 
625 feet, equal to 600 feet 9 inches 
English, or somewhat less than 
one-eighth of an English mile. 

StreFitz or Strel^tsi, stre/llts, 
strelt'se, name of the Russian 
body-guards. 

Stym-pha^lus, Greek Stumphalos, 
etc., the name of a town, district. 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



323 



mountain, and river in the north- 
eastern part of Arcadia. 

Suf-fe^te§ (from the Phoenician sho- 
fet, a judge), the name of the two 
chief magistrates or kings who 
presided over the Senate at 
Carthage. 

Syr-a-cuse'', Greek. Surahousai, Latin 
Syracuse^, the most important 
Greek city in Sicily. 

Ta-gi^nae, a village E. of the Upper 
Tiber. 

Tal^ent, Latin talentum, Greek ta- 
lanton, literally a weight; a Grecian 
weight; a sum of money. The 
Attic talent of silver contained 
60 minse, or 6,000 drachmse, and 
was equal to £243 15s, Approxi- 
mately calculate a talent at £250, 
or §1,250. A raina was equal to 
£4 \s.M., or $22.32. 

Tar-quin^ius Su-per^bus, one of 
the Tarquins, a family of Greek 
extraction. 

Tas^so, one of the most celebrated 
poets of Italy; he flourished about 
A.D. 1575. 

Ta-yg^e-tus,Ta'y-ge^ta (Virgil), Gr. 
Taiigeton, the loftiest moimtain in 
Peloponnesus; the range is now 
called Pentedaktulos, that is, five- 
fingered. 

Te^ge-a (Greek), one of the most 
ancient towns of Arcadia. 

Tei^as, or Te^jas, te^ijds, king of 
the Goths. 

Tha'le§ (Greek), the Ionian philoso- 
pher of Miletus, was reckoned 
among the Seven Sages. 



Thap-'sus, Greek Thapsos, a city in 
Africa Propria. 

The^bes, thebz, Greek Thebai, Latin 
Thehae, name of the chief city of 
Boeotia ; also of a city in Egypt. 

Ther'mus, Therma, Thermum, Gr. 
Thermon,W\Q chief cityof Aetolia. 

The'o-do^si-us, the-o-do^shi-us, the 
Great, Roman emperor of the 
East. 

Thes-motli^e-tse, Gr, Thesinothetai, 
literally law-givers, were the six 
junior archons at Athens. 

The^te§ (Greek), literally serfs ; the 
fourth class of Athenian citizens 
under Solon's division, composed 
of all possessed of less than 200 
medimni. 

Thor, the god of thunder ; his name 
gives us Thui'sdai/, and his attri- 
bute to the Germans their Don- 
nerslag. 

Thra^ce, thrds, Gr. Thrahe, etc., Lat. 
Thracia, a province of Northern 
Greece from Macedonia to the 
Euxine, along the ^gean and 
Propontis; also of a district in 
Asia Minor called Bithijnian 
Thrace. 

Tib'e-ri^nus (Latin), the guardian 
god of the river Tiber. 

Ti-ci^nus, Greek Tikinos, the mod- 
ern Ticino, a considerable river in 
Northern Italy. 

Til^sit, a town on the Memel or 
Niemen, in East Prussia. 

Ti-iTi6c^ra-9y, Greek timokratia, 
from time, assessment, and kra- 
tein, to rule ; a form of govern- 
ment under which pu1)lic offices 
and political privileges are dis- 



324 



SELECT VOCABULARY. 



tributed according to a rating of 
property, 

To^ga (Latin), literally a covering, 
the gown or outer garment of a 
R(Wnan citizen ; the toga praetexta, 
bordered with purple, was worn 
by the higher magistrates and 
by free-born children until they 
assumed the toga virilis, or the 
manly gown ; candidates for office 
wore a white (candidus, white) 
toga, mourners one of dark gray. 

Tra^ehas (Greek), a city of Malis, 
at the foot of Mount Oeta. 

Tras'y-me^nus, or Tras'i-me^ims 
Lia^cus, a large lake in Etruria. 

Troe-ze^ne, Greek Troizen, a city of 
Peloponnesus. 

Ty^phon, Greek Tuphaon, Tuphoeus, 
a fabulous monster. 

Tyre, tir, Greek Turos, Latin Tyrus, 
the most celebrated and important 
city of Phoenicia. 

U^kralne, u^Tcrdn, or oo-Jcrdn^, a dis- 
trict in Southern Russia. '^' 

U^ti-ca, an old town in Africa Pro- 
pria, north of Carthage. 

U^trecht, u^treJct, name of a city 
and province in Holland. 

Van^'da-li, the Vandals, originally 
a German nation, moved during 
the Migration of Nations through 
Gaul to Spain, and, pushed by 



the Visigoths, seized North Africa, 
A.D. 429. 

Ve-nu^si-a, the modern Venosa, a 
city of Apulia, on the Appian 
Way. 

Vincen^nes, ving-senn^ (French), a 
village now included within the 
fortifications of Paris. 

Vifiges, vit^l-ges, a king of the bar- 
barians. 

Vol^ga, or Wol^'ga, ancient Rha, 
the name of a river of the Rus- 
sian empire, and the largest in 
Europe. 

Vol-taire'', vdl-tar^ (French), name 
of the famous author. 

Wil^na, also Vfl^nS and Vil^no, 

a city on the Vilia, in W. Russia, 
473 miles S.W. of St. Petersburg. 
Wittekind, vWte-kind (Old High 
German), literally child of wis- 
dom. 

Xan-thip^pe (Greek), the wife of 
Socrates. 

Za^'ma, Greek Zama Meizon, a town 
of Numidia, situated five days' 
journey S.W. of Carthage. 

Zens, or Ze^'us, the Greek name of 
Jupiter. 

Zeux^is (Greek), the celebrated 
painter. 



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